SOME REMARKS ON GLASS SEALS FROM THE TERRITORY OF POLAND FROM THE 17TH-19TH CENTURIES

Introduction Glass bottles with stamps (seals) made of the same material1 and glass seals attached to parts of bodies of glass vessels, are one of the most interesting archaeological artefacts. They stand out among the mass finds classified as glass cullet obtained during excavations on sites dated to the modern period, particularly in the large volume of a rather uniform bottle glass, since they are artefacts recorded usually in small numbers. The seals themselves, although small and often of a rather modest appearance, are characterised by considerable stylistic diversity, and in light of Polish publications released to date, similar specimens are usually registered on a rather


Introduction
Glass bottles with stamps (seals) made of the same material 1 and glass seals attached to parts of bodies of glass vessels, are one of the most interesting archaeological artefacts. They stand out among the mass finds classified as glass cullet obtained during excavations on sites dated to the modern period, particularly in the large volume of a rather uniform bottle glass, since they are artefacts recorded usually in small numbers. The seals themselves, although small and often of a rather modest appearance, are characterised by considerable stylistic diversity, and in light of Polish publications released to date, similar specimens are usually registered on a rather * Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw; http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0108-7625; magdabis@wp.pl; magdabis@iaepan.edu.pl 1 In Polish archaeological literature, both terms are commonly used. In this paper, I also use them interchangeably. However, both expressions are ambiguous and imprecise in relation to the analysed artefacts (this problem was already signalled by Andrzej Gołębiewski -Gołębiewski 1997, 184, footnote 1). In terms of the semantics (as an ownership and identification marking) and the manufacturing technique, it would be more appropriate to use the term seal. limited territory. Furthermore, inscriptions and pictograms placed on the seals may have different meanings or are difficult to explain and remain a mystery. However, the artistic qualities of the seals are of secondary importance, being subordinated to their primary function -utilitarian, as stamps were predominantly carriers of information about production and commerce, regarding workshops, manufacturers, and purchasers of these products, potential outlets, the capacity of the vessels and the amount of liquid stored in them. Markings on bottles also conformed to officially imposed requirements or advertised the goods labelled with them (both the vessel and its contents). Such products were used for storing, transporting, and serving mostly alcoholic beverages, mainly wine, beer, vodka, gin, and spirits, as well as mineral water.
The use of such markings on modern glass vessels from the territory of Poland may be seen as the consequence of the relationships and economic and cultural influences between various countries on the European continent at that time. This was the result of reproducing practices already tested and widespread abroad, which were also applied to local glass manufacturing and gained a good reputation among the local consumers.
This was also the consequence of general tendencies towards the standardisation of glass packaging and the implementation of the imposed fiscal restrictions.
The custom of labelling glass containers in the form of stamps impressed in glass has western origins dating to around the mid-17 th century. It subsequently became widespread and was used across the continent as well as in North America. It was most commonly used in the 18 th century and in the first half of the 19 th century. 2 Such finds also spark interest among Polish archaeologists, leading to papers and monographs dedicated to the problem of stamped glass bottles and glass vessels. Based on the review of the Polish literature published since 1987, we can see a gradual increase in the number of such studies, particularly during the last few years. 3 Despite the fact that the discussion on this type of artefacts was already included in many publications, this research problem is still far from being investigated thoroughly.
In this paper, I tried to collate the most important information about the above-mentioned finds published since that time, in order to bring them closer to readers and characterise them, as well as summarise the associated research problems and the current state of research at a national level. This discussion is of a preliminary nature. Its objective is to present the multitude and diversity of issues related to this type of artefacts, including outlining potential directions of further studies on the production, use, and distribution of glass vessels with seals in the territory of modern Poland.

A review of Polish finds of glass seals and main research findings
In Polish archaeological literature, such artefacts were recorded among other finds already as early as in the 1970s, 4 although it was Leszek Kajzer who first paid more attention to them in his paper on the import of beer from the British Isles and glass containers used for that purpose, including bottles of English provenance. 5 The breakthrough came with a paper written by Andrzej Gołębiewski, which was published several 2 More information on this subject e.g. in Morgan 1976, 7-23;Polak 1981, 234-239, 261-264;Dumbrell 1983, 13-23;van den Bossche 2001;Veit and Huey 2014, 56-60;Jeffries and Major 2015, 132-133. Since there are numerous publications on this subject, I list here only several selected works. Research questions concerning the history of using glass bottles with seals have also been discussed many times in Polish archaeological publications. For this reason, in this paper, I decided to include only a short reference.
3 See Bis 2020a. 4 E.g. Cnotliwy et al. 1972, 216;Gajewska and Kruppé 1973, 629, footnote 20. 5 Kajzer 1981. years later. 6 It contained fundamental findings, which are still valid, concerning the formal analysis of glass seals, their classification, and comprehensive interpretation. From our current perspective, we may state, together with the progress of studies on this type of finds in other European countries, 7 that both works became the impulse for other scholars to take up this research problem and set out a number of future research trends. The result of the above-mentioned inspirations was the creation and publication in Poland during the last two decades of eight papers dedicated exclusively to glass seals and bottles. 8 Those artefacts have also become a subject of a wider discussion in connection with descriptions of collections of glass artefacts that included such finds discovered in different parts of modern-day Poland. 9 As a result, the subject of glass seals has been discussed relatively often in the context of publications on other types of modern glass vessels. 10 However, researchers have concentrated mainly on the set of information discussing: the state of preservation and the appearance of finds, in particular of the symbols impressed on seals, their function and origin, and enumerating other sites with such finds. Among more recent publications, only a few authors have adopted a more comprehensive approach to studies on artefacts with glass seals. 11 To gain an approximate, comprehensive image concerning the current state of glass seals finds from the territory of contemporary Poland recorded after the year 1987 basic data are compiled in Table 1. That set of information includes selected artefacts, i.e. varying in terms of the location and the category of sites on which they were discovered, and simultaneously recorded in publications that made it possible to establish in the relevant assemblages of finds the proportion between artefacts with glass seals and other the remaining glass finds without any stamps or markings. 12 6 Gołębiewski 1997. 7 This phenomenon is manifested through, among other things, several key works published et the end of the 20 th century and the beginning of the 21 st century, including: Friese and Friese 1992;van den Bossche 2001;Humbsch 2001;Humbsch 2002. 8 Woźny 2001Siwiak 2003;Siwiak 2004;Krukowska 2007a;Siwiak 2007a;Siwiak 2007b;Siwiak 2009;Szczepanowska 2013. 9 E.g. Nawracki 1999Krukowska 2007b, 35-46;Antowska-Gorączniak 2012, 151, 194, Pl. 6;Rais-Kufel and Kufel 2013, 237-278;Wojciechowska 2015;Grabny 2016, 261-263;Wilgocka 2016, 227-228, 238-239, Figs. 5 and 6;Baturo 2017, 217-223, 235, Pl. 5;Baturo and Kasprzak 2018a;Baturo and Kasprzak 2018b. 10 See Bis 2020a. 11 Woźny 2001;Siwiak 2003;Siwiak 2007a;Szczepanowska 2013; 12 I have taken into consideration those publications, which in addition to the number of glass seals provided information about the total number of discovered bottles and their fragments or the total number of glass vessels. Observations made on the basis of the current state of research Based on the collated data it is possible to state unequivocally that vessels with such seals and such loose finds are relatively rare. The total number of artefacts listed in Table 1, covering 24 regions of archaeological excavations, was over 220 specimens. Other sites (around 60 in total), where archaeologists discovered glass seals (overall at least 330) and which were mentioned in publications from that time include: Bierzwnik, 13 (Stolpiak and Świercz 1997, 42-45, no figures) and 13 seals (Stolpiak and Świercz 1998, 39-41, no figures).
The dating of the finds included in the discussed compilation generally falls to the period between the end of the 17 th century to the second half of the 19 th century, rarely exceeding either of these thresholds (the earliest dates being those concerning finds from the excavations at the site of the town hall in Łowicz -from around the second half of the 17 th century and the tower castle in Siedlęcin as well as the Old Town in Elbląg the latest -until the 1890s). This conforms with the conclusions regarding the production and use of similar signs in western European countries. 56 Vessels with seals are usually standard products, of average quality, most common on the market, and do not differ from unsigned specimens. 57 They are made 52 Siwiak 2007b, 77, footnote 6. 53 For brief information on these finds see Markiewicz 1999, 180; see also Stolpiak and Świercz 1997, 42-45;Stolpiak and Świercz 1998, 39-41. 54 The latter three assemblages were not included in Table 1, due to insufficient information contained in publications about these finds. 55 This remains in line with the findings made by Andrzej Gołębiewski, who in his work published 23 years ago (likewise based on the literature and archaeological finds available at that time) also estimated that the "percentage of bottles with impressed stamps in the preserved assemblages did not reach even 1%" (Gołębiewski 1997, 184). 56 Among others, Morgan 1976;Dumbrell 1983. 57 See Gołębiewski 1997, 185. At the beginning of the 19 th century, the best and the most durable Polish bottles (appropriate for fizzy drinks and with a quality similar to that of English bottles) were believed to be vessels from Huta Sztabińska -glass workshop located in the village of Sztabin in Podlasie region (Włodarczyk 2017, 145, footnote 15). Currently there is only one artefact among from green, greenish, or brown glass, with visible air bubbles. Since seals are usually found separately, with only small fragments of the bodies (upper parts of bottles), in most cases it was not possible to establish the specific shape and size of the vessel. They survived in Elbląg 58 and Warsaw. 59 They were attached to storage bottles with a round (cylindrical) or oval cross-section, as well as rectangular bottles (i.e. flasks), 60 in the place where the neck transforms into the body (on the shoulder) and where glass is thinner and more fragile, which possibly made those batches of glass products more prone to damage.
Due to the fragmentary preservation of the majority of vessels and the still small available source database, no correlations between the shape of the container and a specific type of markings were observed. In this respect, the only link is associated with finds with different versions of the name "London", which -based on descriptions provided by authors or figures of finds -more often are rectangular vessels. Their shape was adjusted for transporting them in travel cases (case bottles). However, the search for more specific relationships between individual vessels and details of representations on the seals at this stage would be premature. Among Polish finds, we may only observe a greater proportion of cylindrical bottles than squat ones (representing the following types: shaft and globe, onion bottles, and malet bottles). This is linked to the chronology of Polish finds, as they are mainly vessels from the 18 th and 19 th centuries, which saw a gradual increase (and then the dominance) of such slenderer forms. 61 Seals usually have small sizes, with diameters of around 3-4 cm and thickness below 3 mm. They are usually round (e.g. Figs. 1 and 2); only in few cases records showed a rectangular imprint, among finds from Warsaw ( Fig. 7:b; another example see Fig. 2:c). 62 This was the result of using a tool with an appropriate section. They also usually have a visible, convex rim made by the pressure created by the stamp being applied to the hot glass disc while attaching it to the the published archaeological finds known from Łomża (Jurzysta 2014, 103; there is no figure depicting the seal). 58 Gołębiewski 1997, 185. 59 Kozłowska 1994, 36, 38-39, 41;Baturo 2017, 201-217. 60 In the analysed archaeological materials I did not find any information about discoveries of bottles with glass seals that would have other shapes, for instance with triangular or octagonal bodies, which would also be manufactured around that time (such artefacts are mentioned in, e.g. Morgan 1976, 58-59, 68;Dumbrell 1983, 87-90, 141). 61 See e.g. Morgan 1976, 24-27;Dumbrell 1983, 100-119. 62  surface of the bottle and constituting the excess of glass mass gathered around the imprint (other examples see Figs. 1 and 2:a-b, d).
Much less often the stamp is on the glass strip below the lip of the bottle (Fig. 3). 63 It is a separate and at the same time a simplified manner of signing glass containers, with a similar marketing as well as fiscal and inspection function. The signs were placed along a flattened circular glass tape (around 0.5-1 cm wide) under the rim of a bottle. 64 In exceptional cases, they 63 Polish researches call them signature discs (Gołębiewski 1997, 201) or signature strips (e.g. Baturo and Kasprzak 2019a). 64 For this reason, it was not necessary to carry out additional technological actions consisting in the production of a glass disc. Such finds were recorded on several occasions: in Elbląg (11 finds, Gołębiewski 1997, 201), in Warsaw -the Old Town area (7 items, including: 2 specimens, Baturo and Kasprzak 2019b, 38; 3 specimens, Baturo and Kasprzak 2019c, 28-29; 2 specimen, Baturo and Kasprzak 2018c, 37) and the town (6 items, Lipiec 2017, 170-173, Fig. 1:c, 2:b; Fig. 3:a; Fig. 5:a, i-j, k), the monastery in Pakość (2 items, Siwiak 2007b, 78-79, Fig. 1:2-3) and the village take the form of a quadrangular imprint. 65 Markings on glass tapes are schematic, limited to letters (including unrelated, not forming legible inscriptions) and combinations of letters and numerals referring to the serial numbers of products or beverages, capacity, etc. 66 ( Fig. 3:a-d), without any pictograms. In a few cases they bear the name of a glass works ("H IEZEWIC:" or "H: IE[…]", "H:LUTKOWSKA", "H:SWYNC:", 67 "H: WALOWI") 68 (Fig. 3:e-f). Based on the collected material from Poland, it is possible to state that this method of counting post-medieval glass bottles was used much less often than the glass seals method.
in Zajezierze (1 specimen, Siwiak 2004, 159). The total number of above mentioned items is 27. 65 Lipiec 2017, 171, Fig. 6:a. 66 See also Gołębiewski 1997, 200-201, Fig. 4:a-f. 67 The same inscriptions are the imprints on round glass seals, see Baturo and Kasprzak 2018c, 37, Figs. 1-3;Baturo and Kasprzak 2019a, 26-17;Baturo and Kasprzak 2019c, 28-29, Figs. 1-4. 68 Baturo and Kasprzak 2019b, 38, Figs. 1-2. Seals differ in terms of their types, i.e. signs placed on seals and their iconography. These include individual signs, trademarks, monograms, as well as symbols, descriptive signs, and numerical signs. 69 They have the form of positives -raised imprint on a concave background. They are usually made shoddily, without much care about details of the drawing and the shape of letters. In many cases they were impressed unevenly, thus only a part of the original stamp is visible. Most probably this was caused by the intensive use of presses for creating imprints. If glass mass stuck to the surface of presses, symbols and inscriptions on subsequent imprints would become blurred. Thus, the period of their suitability for use could be quite short. 70 However, the examples analysed here show that those tools must have been used despite their faults, causing impressed images to be increasingly illegible. Another 69 Types of signs on seal identified by A. Gołębiewski based on finds from the Old Town in Elbląg (Gołębiewski 1997, 187). I use that classification while discussing signs on glass seals in this paper. Only in the case of signs containing names of glass workshops I allocate them to the group of descriptive signs and not trademarks, as in my opinion, the first term provides a better characteristic of inscriptions on the analysed artefacts.
Other reordered specimens include symbols that most probably refer to the capacity of individual vessels, in the form of Arabic and Roman numerals and fractions (i.e. numerical signs) or letters -abbreviations or acronyms of units of capacity used in measuring liquid commodities. Producing bottles of a certain size and signing them appropriately was regulated and monitored by the state. For the Kingdom of Poland ordinances concerning the capacity of bottles were issued in the years 1819 and 1830, 116 while for Prussia -in 1816. 117 Primarily they 110 Poturalska 1999, 318-319, Fig. 1:2-3. 111 That manufacture was not recorded in the inventory of glass workshops operating in Poland in the second half of the 18 th century and the first half of the 19 th century complied by Zofia Kamieńska (see Kamieńska 1974, 94-97, Map 5). 112 Krukowska 2016, 213. 113 Wojciechowska 2015:1-2. See also Kwiatkowski 2010, 103;108, [Fig.] 8:5 (the author incorrectly deciphered the inscription on that seal). 114 Gołębiewski 1997, 196-197, Fig. 3:b-c. The author suggested that these bottles come from Constance, on the border of contemporary Germany and Switzerland. After Roy Morgan the bottles with this inscription are Dutch vessels bearing the name after Constance, wife of Governor van der Stell (Morgan 1976, 102). 115 The discussed chapter does not contain any description of the seal and it is not possible to decipher the full inscription in the circumscription (Bienia 2014, 151). Most probably it is the name of the glass workshop or the name of its owner. 116 They ordered using half-pint, pint, pint and a half, quart, three-quart bottles, etc. and indicating the "capacity of bottles with a glass stamp on the shoulder or the bottom" (Włodarczyk 2017, 145, footnote 15). 117 Siwiak 2007a, unpaged. The unit of measurement that was introduced at that time -1 Berliner Quart equalled to 1.145 litre, whereas ¾ Berliner Quart -approximately 0.86 litre. In Saxony (since 1836), Bavaria (since 1868), and Mecklenburg (since 1872), the capacity of bottles was given only in litres. The signing of ready-made bottles was previously regulated by Prussian decrees, e.g. from the years 1728, 1733, 1739 (see also Mucha 1997, 118).
Monograms in the form of stylised letters "FR" with a royal crown above them, presumably are initials of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great (reign: 1740-1786). 146 They were recorded, for instance, in Elbląg, 147 Toruń, 148 and Warsaw 149 (Fig. 7:m-o).
This group of seals is associated with another one, having a similar purpose, although artefacts from that category of finds are rarely recorded. These are stamps with individualised signs -i.e. inscriptions believed to be surnames or initials of individuals, companies, or manufacturers that ordered signed glass products (this category of finds will be hereinafter generally referred to as "trademarks"). Only a few such specimens have been identified, for instance, those discovered in Gdańsk: "I JO KEILER […]" -a seal with the surname of a 19 th -century merchant from Gdańsk, Johann Keiler, who owned a liqueur factory that operated in Gdańsk from 1814; 150 and "J.J. KEILER" (Fig. 6:g), "GTA". 151 In the group of finds from Stargard, there was a sign with the imprint: "BERGEMANN ER-BEN", i.e. the brewer from Szczecin named Bergemann 143 See Gołębiewski 1997, 187;Mucha 1997, 118. 144 Słomska 2013 Wilgocka 2016, 228;238, Fig. 5:15. 146 That sign resembles the monogram placed, for instance, on coins minted during the reign of that monarch, e.g. a pfennig from 1755, see Bucka et al. 2017, 224, 238, Fig. 28:1. 147 Gołębiewski 1997, 198. 148 Nawracki 1999:e. 149 Baturo 2017, 219. 150 Szczepanowska 2015, 310;302, Fig. 105:10; see also Morgan 1976, 104. 151 Krukowska 2016, 212-213. Their meanings were not further clarified by the author. Based on the artefact from the Wisłoujście fortress, the identification of the first sign and linking it to the operations of the Gdańsk merchant Keiler seems to be the correct explanation. and his successor (Fig. 6:h) 152 . Initials "FI" (or "FJ") found on another artefact probably refer to the glass merchant from the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who operated in the years 1840-1850. 153 The inscription "CGS / 177Z" was most probably made to the order of a Stargard distiller Speichert or the innkeeper Schiersmann, who around 1772 operated his inn near the Pyrzycka gate. 154 Whereas letters "FSH" were identified as an abbreviation referring to the name of a pharmacy -Fürstlisch Sächsichen Hofapotheke. That sign was placed on a vessel manufactured by the glass workshop in Friedrichsthaler. 155 The product of the local alcohol distillery of vodkas and liqueurs, owned by the Kantorowicz Family (operated in the years 1823-1920), was indicated for the artefact from Poznań. In the latter case, however, the inscription was replaced with the Star of David motif. 156 The same factory was linked to another specimen, which was only partly preserved and came from the same site, bearing the inscription "HARTWIG". 157 The name of a liqueur distillery, which functioned in Stargard in the years 1835-1945, andbelonged to Ferdinand Johann Mampe, 158 is hidden behind the partially preserved inscription "SCH[UTZ d. WAARENBEZ.]", preceded by: "[12.MA]I 1894 GESETZ z.", on a seal found in Elbląg 159 (Fig. 6:d). It is an example of factory trademark used from that date. Furthermore, a trademark is probably the unidentified sign impressed on the surface of the bottle discovered in Dubno: "CRUS […] HIRS […] BO". 160 Glass seals discovered on the territory of Poland and included in publications sometimes contain other elements, such as dates. Such dates, from the period from the beginning of the 18 th century to the end of the 19 th century. These dates are mainly noted on artefacts from the western part of modern-day Poland (see 152 Wilgocka 2016, 228, 239, Fig. 6:5. Information on that subject can be found, for instance, in press advertisements from the years 1820 and 1823, Humbsch 1999. 153 Wilgocka 2016, 228, 238, Fig. 5:16. 154 Majewski 2017, 103-104. 155 Kwiatkowski 2010, 103. 156 Kufel 2018, 181. 157 Kufel 2018; see also Morgan 1976, 104. 158 Paduch et al. 2009, "Szklane pieczęcie firmy Mampe", glass seal on the right. 159 Gołębiewski 1997, 199-200, Fig. 4:i. The author suggested that was the name of a local entrepreneur -Ferdynand Schichau . He carried out wide ranging business operations, in particular the production of steam engines. He owned a factory of steam locomotive, a shipyard, and a ship company, see Dutkiewicz 2015. 160 An undated specimen, which was not described in the publication, recorded in the form of a photograph, Garas and Karwowska 2013, 278, Fig. 9. Fig. 4:g, j, k, o), for instance, dates: 1712, 1764, 1772 from Stargard, referring to the year of the production of bottles or -as in the first case -possibly the year of the establishment of the pharmacy, for which they were manufactured. 161 The year 1764 impressed on the seals from the Lotzen (Łośno) glass workshop; 162 1758 and 1785 -appearing on seals from the Annenwalde glass workshop discovered in Szczecin; 163 1744, 1749, 1750, 1754 and 1766 -on the bottles from the Marienwalde glass workshop; 164 and the year 1789 -on the specimens from Darłowo, 165 Fordon and probably from Łabiszyn, produced in the glass work in Lippusch, 166 as well as dates 1805 and 1811 -on the artefacts discovered in Stargard, 167 Elbląg 168 and Fordon, 169 from the Pipstock or Mehrenthin glass workshops. In the group of analysed finds the youngest date -1894 is impressed on the above-mentioned specimen found in Elbląg ( Fig. 6:d). 170 Images, geometric symbols, floral and zoomorphic representations, being iconographic symbols, and constituting the main motif on the seal, were recorded only in a few individual cases. For instance, these include a ship -a three-masted vessel with lowered (folded) sails, with diagonal rigging (also referred to as Latin), which was popular in the Mediterranean, on one find from Gdańsk ( Fig. 7:p); 171 a schematic crown, being the symbol of the monarchical power, on a seal from Fordon ( Fig. 7:q); 172 an isosceles triangle on the artefact from Ostrów Tumski in Wrocław; 173 the Star of David on the artefact from Poznań, 174 also with an inscribed letter "W" and a fish facing left underneath it, on the specimen discovered in Toruń ( Fig. 7:r). 175 The hexagram and the fish are common symbols characteristic for Judaism, which were placed, e.g. on Jewish ritual vessels. 176 It is assumed that 161 Kwiatkowski 2010, 103-104. Another item from Stargard with date probably 1772, see Majewski 2017, 103-104. 162 Burdziej et al. 2014, 380, Fig. 11:4;Szeremeta 2018, 390, 392, Fig. 5:4. 163 Cnotliwy 2014, 278. 164 Stolpiak and Świercz 1997Woźny 2001, 246, Fig. 1:5;249;Burdziej et al. 2013, 349;Burdziej et al. 2014, 389, Fig. 19:7;Bucka et al. 2015, 488, 491, Fig. 17:3;Bucka et al. 2017, 224, 238, Fig. 28:2. 165 Kuczkowski 2016, 162, no. 1.3. 166 Siwiak 2007a, unpaged. 167 Burdziej et al. 2013, 354. 168 Gołębiewski 1997, 195. 169 Woźny 2001250-251. 170 , 199-200, Fig. 4:i. 171 Krukowska 2007a. 172 Siwiak 2003, 60-61, Fig. 1:1. 173 Siemianowska 2015, 224, Fig. 10:h;228, Fig. 14:e. 174 , 181. 175 Nawracki 1999 See Piątkowska andŻebrowski 2008-2020;Sieramska 2008Sieramska -2020 they were impressed on glass products by Jewish manufacturers and/or intended for Jewish customers. However, it is also possible that simultaneously this also served as a confirmation that the liquid stored in such a container was kosher. 177 Other pictograms include a bunch of grapes on the seal from Elbląg (Fig. 7:s) 178 -a symbol of abundance, a popular motif used at that time for decoration of numerous goods (e.g. modern stove tiles); and the representation of an eagle with spread wings -the emblem of the Kingdom of Prussia, known for instance from seals discovered in Bydgoszcz 179 and Gniewkowo. 180 However, signs in the form of a six-pointed star, grapes, and the Prussian eagle are usually only graphic additions to inscriptions. 181 Published glass seals from the territory of Poland sporadically have heraldic signs on them, in the form of standalone marks or grouped with inscriptions. We know only a few such signs, including several from Stargard, of which one remains unidentified, 182 and three are coats of arms of the Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont (2 specimens) and the Pyrmont region (1 specimen). The latter were accompanied by the name of spring water -Pyrmont Water and Pyrmonter Stahlwasser ( Fig. 6:a-b), 183 transported in bottles bearing the above-mentioned signs. At the same time, a glass seal discovered in Elbląg shows the view of the Mill Gate (Mühlentor in German) in Stargard, one of the four gates of that medieval town and important local monument ( Fig. 6:d). 184 Among the recorded finds, a relatively high percentage and territorial range characterises vessels with seals bearing the name "London" (Fig. 8). According to the division created by A. Gołębiewski, they can also be classified as descriptive signs. They represent various forms -there are specimens with inscriptions in the full form ("LONDON"), as well as with abbreviations or misspelled, but always written in capital letters. Usually, the seal contains a crown above 177 Another seal that may be associated with Jewish symbols can be the artefact with the inscription in capital letters "ARIEL", which is the only element placed on the seal attached to the bottle discovered in Stargard (Burdziej et al. 2013, 352, 379, Fig. 32). Ariel is a Hebrew man's name or a poetic name for Jerusalem (Żebrowski 2008-2020). 178 Gołębiewski 1997, 197-198, Fig. 3:a. 179 Siwiak 2007a, Fig. 7:4, 6, 8, 12. 180 Sulkowska-Tuszyńska 2018195, Fig. 93:c. 181 See examples in . 182 Burdziej et al. 2013, 354, 384, Fig. 39. That coat of arms was not identified in the source publication. The author also was not able to identify it on the basis of the printed photograph. 183 Wojciechowska 2015, 186-187, 199,   also on finds from Biskupice, 198 Dubno,199 Fordon,200 Gdańsk, 201 Poznań,202 Puck,203 and Radoszyce. 204 The provenance and function of those bottles have been discussed many times in Polish publications. It is assumed that they were products imported from England together with their contents (mostly beer) or without it, or they were locally produced goods. The latter interpretation seems to be equally probable, as evidenced by the artefacts containing typos in the word London. In such cases, signs on the seals were supposed to increase the commercial value of the labelled goods; 205 emphasizing the provenance of the foreign beverage imported in barrels and sold in bottles manufactured in the country of the importer. This option (Polish origin of the glass) was already confirmed as a result of physicochemical analysis of such finds from the area of the post-medieval glass workshop in Średnia Huta. 206 We could also look at this practice from another point of view -possibly as an indented falsification of the country of origin of the vessel and the liquid it contained. How such products were distributed is also interesting. Currently, as indicated by the above-mentioned examples, we know at least a dozen or so towns and villages, in which such finds, have been recorded. 207 Generally, they are located in different parts of Poland -from Radom to Puck, from Dubno to Poznań. A concentration of such finds can be observed in the central, longitudinal part of the country, from the south -Lesser Poland, through Mazovia and Kuyavia to the north -to Gdańsk Pomerania. Perhaps this phenomenon is associated with the ways of distribution (the Vistula route) or the cumulation of domestic production centres -both explanations are probable.
An interesting problem, which so far has been discussed only sporadically in Polish archaeological publications, is the use of glass bottles with seals for the distribution of mineral water in the late modern period. 208 Water from popular springs, which were believed to have healing properties, was distributed in branded containers since the end of the 17 th century. In such cases, seals also confirmed the origin and the reputation of the beverage stored in the bottles. Four finds from Stargard give us the basis to state that glass containers with seals were used to import spring water from Bad Pyrmont in Lower Saxony 209 and from Szczawno Zdrój in Silesia 210 (Fig. 6:a-c).
Archaeologists sometimes also record glass seals only in the form of blank discs attached to walls of glass vessels but without any imprints. Such finds, for instance, were discovered in Bąkowa Góra; 211 in Elbląg; 212 in Fordon; 213 in Gdańsk; 214 in Łabiszyn; 215 in Toruń; 216 and in Warsaw, 217 as well as in Wilanów. 218 Usually archaeologists record several such finds on a given site, but their percentage compared with the total number of glass seals is rather high, ranging between 13.5% and 37.5%. The exception is the latter find -a single specimen discovered at that archaeological site. We also know artefacts with illegible or fuzzy signs, recorded, for instance, in Trzemeszno (several specimens), 219 Warsaw (2 items) 220 or Chełmno (1 item) 221 (other examples see Fig. 2:a-b). These are, however, atypical specimens, the genesis of which has no easy explanation. It is possible that they are examples of flawed seals, the result of an oversight or mistakes made during the production process, for instance as a result of a shoddy application of the glass disc and impressing the stamp in still too molten glass. Perhaps they are the evidence of abandoned orders placed for signed vessels, which despite the withdrawal of the specific commission were sold to another customer. We cannot rule out, however, that it was a deliberate action aimed at hiding the scale of production from the tax authorities, or at least or understating it. Smooth surfaces of glass discs may also be a secondary effect, a result of removing (grinding down) the existing imprint. 222

Conclusions
Based on the literature concerning this subject and archaeological sources, it is possible to state that finds from the territory of Poland correspond with the general tendencies in terms of the quality, form, and function of this type of artefacts described by foreign scholars, whereas their specific feature (as far as it was possible to establish on the basis of published materials) is the more slender shape of vessels with seals -a greater proportion of cylindrical bottles than squat ones (of the shaft and globe, onion bottle and mallet bottle types). This is associated with the chronology of Polish finds, which are primarily vessels from the 18 th and 19 th centuries, when the slenderer forms gradually became the most popular type of manufactured glass bottles. The square-bodied bottles kept in cases (case bottles) more often are containers with seals bearing the name "London". This results from the fact that their large part constituted goods imported from England, and their domestic imitations repeated the form of the original bottles. Bottles with the name of the English capital city with the correct spelling or in a modified (also misspelled) are discovered relatively often in different parts of Poland. Their use may be seen as a deliberate marketing practice at that time. Placing a word or expression directly related to England on the seal suggested to the customers that the product was an original import from that country, even if it actually had a domestic or different provenance (for example Dutch).
Artefacts from the territory of contemporary Poland are characterised by a limited and schematic set of signs placed on the seals, and the quality of imprints is usually not very good. This is manifested through rare occurrence of dates (just on several specimens from Bierzwnik, Darłowo, Elbląg, Łomża, Pipstock, Stargard and Szczecin,), full surnames (two identified finds from Gdańsk associated with the merchant named 222 See Gołębiewski 1997, 199;Mucha 1997, 118;Siwiak 2003, 61;Siwiak 2007a, unpaged. Johann Keiler and one with the owner of the Szczecin brewery Bergemann), and complete names of glass workshops (among other things, Piekarska, Olichawska, Sztabinska, Glas Fabrik Clementienhof). The latter are usually identified based on place names written on seals -locations of the glasshouses (Bernsee -Breń, Blendow -Błędów, Dantzig -Gdańsk, Lippusch -Lipusz, Lotzen -Łośno, Marienwalde -Bierzwnik, Racado[w] -Racendów, etc.). Seals bearing only emblems: a ship, crown, triangle, the Star of David, a bunch of grapes, eagle, as well as coats of arms are rare. The majority of the discovered heraldic stamps are related with containers for spring water. Only some of the Polish finds can probably be considered as products made to order of definite breweries, liqueur factories or alcohol distilleries (with inscriptions "BERGEMANN ERBEN", "CGS", "HARTWIG", "I JO KEILER", "J.J. KEILER", "GE-SETZ z. SCH[UTZ d. WAARENBEZ.]").
The largest group comprises seals with inscriptions that are probably abbreviations or initials, which today are impossible to decipher, but -as we may assumewere usually trademarks.
This can be attributed to the still limited knowledge about manufacturers and buyers of modern bottles in Poland, primarily due to the insufficient recognition of written records. The exemptions are already published results on studies on glass workshops and finds of glass seals from western part of Poland as well as the recently carried out and disseminated research concerning such workshops and finds from Mazovia. For this reason, in the case of many artefacts from territory of Poland we are usually unable to establish the cause and circumstances associated with placing orders for vessels stamped with specific seals. Furthermore, there is no evidence of an occasional production of signed wares similar to those recorded abroad. 223 Also because of the small number of finds, so far it has not been possible to undertake other analyses on their basis, including those concerning ownership aspects (changing leases of glass workshops or commercial counterparts). That problem will persist until we see progress in studies on various types of historical sources and issues concerning the history of Polish glass making and use of glass vessels, and in particular in relation to other regions of Polandalthough the identification of people and places hidden behind enigmatic signs may still not be possible.
In my opinion, the greatest potential lies in the research into the range of products manufactured in the so-called forest glass works, namely main producers of storage bottles, and orders for glass containers that were placed with them. Furthermore, another very important research topic may be details of commercial correspondence from the 17 th -19 th centuries regarding the organisation and supply or manors, purchasing beverages and ways of storing them in such estates, and the functioning of breweries, wineries, distilleries, and inns, as well as merchants trading in alcoholic beverages or spring water. Studies concentrating on the history of individual glass workshops and enterprises associated with this sector of economy may also provide valuable data on this subject. Such information may give us a better idea about the scale of production of the analysed wares, conditions, and places in which purchases were made, their frequency, quantities, and costs.
Furthermore, glass seals, particularly identified seals with proven chronology, can be good sources for archaeological dating, and thus help us with the analysis of stratigraphy and establishing the time of use of other finds from the same assemblages or deposits. Additionally, as demonstrated by the above-mentioned findings, they can be very good sources for studying selected aspects of the history of glassmaking in Poland, being the evidence of the functioning of individual glass workshops -particularly those less known -and the assortment of their products.
Without a doubt, Polish publications released to date provide valuable material for comparative studies, increasing our knowledge about types of marks that were used, their territorial diversification, and chronology, and observations compiled by me in this paper will hopefully become a starting point for further detailed analyses.