Geographia Polonica Vol. 90 No. 3 (2017) Revival of rural settlements in Kłodzko Land

During the post-war period the area of Kłodzko Land was subject to considerable depopulation processes which resulted in partial and total depopulation of outlying villages. For this reason the region is considered as problematic by many researchers, despite numerous attempts to revive it. In recent years, however, increasing variation in the trends of population change has been noticed and, besides the continually progressing depopulation, processes indicating the ‘revival’ of certain declining villages have emerged. This situation is a result of the influx of new residents, mainly from urban areas, who frequently run their own businesses and by doing so transform the functional character of particular villages.


Introduction
During the post-war period the rural areas of the Sudety underwent significant processes of depopulation 1 , however they were most visible in the area known as Kłodzko Land (Tomaszewski 1968;Chachaj 1978;Jerkiewicz et al. 1979;Salwicka 1978Salwicka , 1983Miszewska 1979Miszewska , 1989Zagożdżon 1990;Ciok 1994Ciok , 1995. Unfavourable changes in population in the region led to partial or total 1 However, the phenomenon had commenced as early as in the end of 19th century (see Eberhardt 1989). depopulation of many settlements and even entire rural areas, which, in turn, led to the decline of entire villages or parts of them (Chachaj 1978;Szmytkie 2008;Latocha 2013). Among the results of the aforementioned processes we can include changes in land use, which led to considerable lowering of the altitude of the agriculture-forest boundary or the dilapidation of development in abandoned villages (Zagożdżon 1990;Ciok 1995;Latocha 2007Latocha , 2009Latocha , 2011Latocha , 2012. The settlements which underwent depopulation processes mainly comprised small, non-urbanised villages (up to 100 inhabitants) located in the upper parts of valleys above the so-called limit of the agricultural breakeven point, which, in Sudety, was established at 500-600 m.a.s.l. (Borkowski et al. 1966;Tomaszewski 1968;Zagożdżon 1990;Ciok 1995). The analysis of changes in the population of the villages in the region indicated that in the 1960s the majority of settlements (77.9%) displayed a decrease or stagnation in their population (Jerkiewicz et al. 1979(Jerkiewicz et al. ), and, between 1970(Jerkiewicz et al. and 1978, a decrease in population was noted in 81.2% of villages (Miszewska 1979). In addition, the selective character of migration (mainly outflow of young people) caused a transformation of the demographic structures of villages, in particular producing an ageing of the population and lowering of the rate of natural increase (Zagożdżon 1990). In the 1990s the decline of rural settlements, together with the associated economic-ecological changes, were identified as one of the main problems of the Sudety region (Ciok 1991). Other mountainous regions of Central-East Europe underwent similar processes during the post-war period (compare with e.g. MacDonald et al. 2000;Wolski 2007;Soja 2008;Baumann et al. 2011;Drápela 2011;Mladenov & Ilieva 2012;Novotná et al. 2013;Affek 2015).
However, over recent years a process of diversification has been noted in the population change and while the depopulation processes have remained, evidence of a 'revival' have also appeared in certain declining rural settlements. In the paper the notion of the 'revival of villages' is understood by the authors not only as an increase in population after a long period of depopulation, but also as a process of recovering (reactivating) of formerly lost functions (together with various expressions of socio-economic life) and even enriching (supplementing) the process with new forms of activity resulting directly from comprehensive improvements in standards.
The main aim of the paper is to present the issue of reviving villages, discussed via examples of rural areas in Kłodzko Land. During the post-war period, many settlements of this region transformed from abandoning villages (without perspectives for development) into reviving villages, which, in the current socioeconomic circumstances (through the use of dormant local potential) have found or are finding their path for development, or even a recipe for economic success. The phenomenon of the revival of villages in the Kłodzko Land area is presented in the context of the trends which have dominated population change in recent years. The analysis was conducted on the basis of data concerning the statistically defined settlements for the following years: 1988, 2002 and 2011 (census data) 2 , and, in the case of selected villages, also for 1933, 1950, 1960, 1970 and 1978. The analysis also used data on the size and structure of the rural accommodation services of the poviat, as it is tourism which has offered the opportunity to overcome 'socio-economic lethargy' to many settlements. In selected villages of Kłodzko Land (Bielice, Gajów, Jarków, Kąty Bystrzyckie, Lasówka, Lutynia, Nowy Gierałtów) free-form interviews with local leaders were also conducted in which the issue of demographic changes and the functioning of the local communities was raised.

Kłodzko Land as a research area
Kłodzko Land, a historical rather than a geographical notion, refers to an area on the border between the Central and Eastern Sudety Mountains, drained by the Nysa Kłodzka river and its tributaries, and centred around the broad Kłodzka Basin (Migoń 1996). The area's boundaries follow the administrative borders of the Kłodzko Poviat (district) and formerly these of the Kłodzko Province. Kłodzko land is distinguished from the rest of the Lower Silesia Voivodeship by its distinctive physiography. The area of the region (approx. 1700 km 2 ), which, by its characteristic shape, resembles a quadrangle, cuts into the territory of the Czech Republic. As a geographical border region, it has often changed its national affiliation, and, as a result, became an area of conflict and intermingling of Polish, German and Czech culture. Despite the fact that after World War II Kłodzko Land was a place of total replacement of population, even today we can observe attachment to the region and a feeling of distinctiveness among its inhabitants. According to Czerwiński et al. (2003) deeply rooted historically conditioned economic transformations and continuous migration of the population resulted in the fact that the mountainous areas of the Kłodzko Land, unlike the Karpaty Mountains, lack an individual image, especially in the case of regional development and specific customs and traditions.
Until 1989 the Kłodzko region, like the entire Sudety region, was considered by the central government as a 'valuable German inheritance' and omitted in the allocation of the budget. The results of such a policy, visible in outdated technical infrastructure suffering from underinvestment, may negatively influence the future image of Kłodzko Land. Kłodzko Land is, above all, a region with distinctive environmental, landscape, climate, curative and cultural values. The attractiveness of the region is also confirmed by elements of geomorphological structure (unique rock formations), interesting floral groups, ruins of castles and its historic development. In order to protect the area of the highest environmental and landscape values it was decided to establish 11 nature and forest nature reserves, 2 landscape parks and 1 national park, this last being the highest category of environmental protection in Poland. Moreover, a trademark of Kłodzko Land is its network of health resorts which pride themselves on their high rank cultural events, as well as numerous religious sites.
According to "The development strategy of the Lower Silesia rural areas" (Strategia Rozwoju… 2001), Kłodzko Land, in a similar manner to the major part of the Sudety, was spatially assigned to so-called subregion III with industrial-touristic-recreational functions. Because of the low quality of agricultural

Demographic characteristics of Kłodzko Land
The current demographic situation in Kłodzko Land, like the course of demographic processes in the area, is mostly determined by the postwar period. After the end of WWII there was a total replacement of the population of the area. As a result, the settlement pattern had to be almost entirely reshaped. The ethnic profile of the region was transformed (Ciok 1994). Kłodzko Land, just like other recovered territories, was mostly populated by young people who rapidly started families. All those factors resulted in the creation of a very favourable population structure, with a big share of children and youth as well as people of working age, and with a relatively small share of older people.
Nevertheless, as the years passed by, what was initially an advantage for Kłodzko Land changed into a handicap. The most numerous tranche composed of young people, who settled on the area in the post-war period, in 1990s successively made a transition into the retirement age range (Górecka & Tomczak 2008). Moreover, since 2012 there has been a great increase in the number of people of post-working age, which is connected with the transition of the population born in the 1950s in Kłodzko Land into the retirement age range. The demographic ageing process of this region is clearly visible in the value of the ageing index, which expresses the relationship between two economic age groups, the pre-working and post-working groups. In 2012 for every 100 people of pre-working age in Poland there were 97 (113 in towns, 77 in villages) people of post-working age, while in Kłodzko Land, there were as many as 120 people (137 in towns, 93 in villages). The most unfavourable value of the index was noted in the following gminas: Polanica Zdrój (172) and Duszniki Zdrój (151).
That is why it can be presumed that the value of the economic dependency ratio (the number of people in pre-working age and post-working age per 100 people in working age) could be relatively favourable, as in 2012 it amounted to 55 and was 5 points lower than the 2002 value (in Poland in those years it amounted to 61 and 57 respectively). However, a more thorough analysis of the ratio shows that the situation is only seemingly more favourable. The value of this ratio noted in 2012 was 55% generated by the post-working age group and 45% by the pre-working group. 10 years earlier this ratio was quite similar, however, with a bigger share of the pre-working group. In the case of the total value for Poland, the share of those two groups was almost equal.
Changes in the population of Kłodzko Land taking place between 2002 and 2012 were similar to those taking place in other parts of the country, but they were considerably more dynamic. Over the period analysed the population of Poland increased by 0.8%, while the population of Kłodzko Land decreased by 2.5%.
The population decreased in 10 out of the total of 14 gminas in the Kłodzko Poviat, while in 4 units there was an increase, including the rural gminas: Kłodzko and Lewin Kłodzki, the mixed urban/rural Szczytna and the urban Kudowa Zdrój. The last three are located along national road No. 8, while the rural gmina Kłodzko is a suburban area of the poviat town of Kłodzko. The process of depopulation was most intense in rural gminas. In the case of Nowa Ruda, the decrease in population amounted to 6.5% (Fig. 2).
The decrease in the number of inhabitants of Kłodzko Land noted between 2002 and 2012 was an effect of the outflow of population as part of internal and international migrations, but, most of all, natural population decline. In 2012 the rate of natural increase in Kłodzko Land amounted to -3.6‰ (in urban areas -4.0‰, in rural areas -3.0‰). While in the same year in Poland it amounted to 0.0‰. During the decade analysed the rate of natural increase in Kłodzko Poviat had the highest value in 2009 (-2.2‰).
The low rate of natural increase in the Kłodzko Land mainly resulted from the low number of births. In 2012 the birth rate amounted to 8.3‰ (7.9‰ in urban areas, 8.9‰ in rural areas), while in Poland it was 10.0‰. Among the territorial units studied the lowest value was noted in Polanica Zdrój (4.5‰). What is more, another factor which influenced the determination of the rate of natural increase was a high death rate (11.9‰), as compared with the national average of 10.0‰.
The future perspectives based on the results of the demographic prognosis until 2035 are also pessimistic. According to the Central Statistical Office (GUS), during the period 2011 to 2035, the population of Kłodzko Poviat will decrease from 167,000 to 131,000, so by 21% (for Poland and Lower Silesia the decrease in population will amount to 6.6% and 10.4% respectively) 3 . It is worth mentioning that during the immediately preceding period, from 1995 (the year when Kłodzko Poviat noted the highest population -184,000) to 2011, the population of the area analysed had already declined by almost 10%. If we take into account a decline in the population during the 1995-2011 period, and the unfavourable scenario that the prognosis concerning the population will prove to be true, during the next 40 years the population of Kłodzko Land will decrease by nearly 30% (for Poland and Lower Silesia 7% and 12.5% respectively).

Current trends in population change in rural settlements in Kłodzko Land
An analysis of current population change in the area of Kłodzko land based on gminas points to an acceleration of depopulation processes, and rapid population ageing in Kłodzko Poviat (Fig. 2). A more detailed view of population processes taking place in the region is provided by an analysis of the number of inhabitants in comparison with statistically defined settlements (Figs. 3 and 4).
In the period 1988-2002 an increase in population was noted in only 31 out of 160 (19.4%) rural settlements in Kłodzko Poviat (Fig. 3). In the period analysed the rural population of the poviat decreased by 5,642 inhabitants (8.7%), which confirms the depopulation processes which have taken place during the entire post-war period. In that period a stable population situation was found in rural settlements located in the central and southern In between 2002-2011 the trends in population change in the rural settlements of Kłodzko Poviat underwent considerable transformation. The rural population of the poviat increased by 652 people (1.1%), and in 95 rural settlements of the poviat the number of inhabitants did not change or increased, including 49 villages with a change of at least 5.0% (Fig. 4). The processes of depopulation were still visible, nevertheless their scale significantly decreased (in only one settlement was a decline in population of at least 30% noted). When analysing the specificity and spatial variation of population change in Kłodzko Land between 2002 and 2011, it can be stated that the increase in the rural population was caused by two processes. Population change (1988 = 100%): A -above 105%; B -95-105%; C -80-95%; D -50-80%; E -below 50%; F -rural settlements depopulated during the period analysed.

'Revival' of rural settlements in Kłodzko Land
The process of decline and 'revival' of rural settlements in Klodzko Land is a quintessential example of the peculiarities of population change in the post-war period. They can be described according to the following scheme. There was a change in the political affiliation of Kłodzko Land (and the entire Silesia) in 1945 as a result of the changing of national borders which led to a replacement of the population. In place of a settled German population deported west, there was an inflow of Polish population mainly from the lowlands of Central Poland or, so-called, Eastern Borderlands.
It resulted in an interruption in the continuity of settlement, as well as a settlement of the Polish population in bigger towns located in the lower parts of valleys, where industrial plants were located; villages located in the upper parts were only partially settled (Fig. 5).
The new population was also not used to farming in unfavourable mountainous conditions. The unstable political situation and difficulties in travelling in this borderland area inhibited tourist traffic. What is more, local traditions of craft, mining and herding also disappeared, which resulted in the disappearance of numerous hamlets and entire rural settlements located in the upper parts of valleys, especially those located above the so-called agricultural break-even point (Szmytkie 2008).
Change was only brought about by economic transformation and the related socioeconomic changes after 1989. These processes resulted in negative demographic tendencies in the rural areas of Kłodzko Land throughout the entire post-war period (Tomaszewski 1968;Jerkiewicz et al. 1979;Chachaj 1978;Salwicka 1978Salwicka , 1983Miszewska 1979Miszewska , 1989Zagożdżon 1990;Ciok 1994Ciok , 1995. The inhibition of the tendency of general decline of the rural population was not noted, nevertheless, since from the beginning of the 21st century there has been a steady increase in the number of new single family dwellings in the rural areas of Kłodzko Poviat (a significant share of which are so-called 'second homes'), In numerous villages there has been a large increase in accommodation services, often interfering with the initial spatial layout and physiognomy of rural settlements. And it is the reactivation of tourist functions which has inhibited the process of depopulation of mountainous rural settlements.
An increase in the population observed between 1988 and 2011 in several villages in Kłodzko Poviat previously undergoing a process of depopulation does not constitute a significant quantitative change (an increase amounting to from several to a dozen or so per cent in the case of small villages, usually with a population of up to 100 inhabitants), however it constitutes a qualitative change (Fig. 7), which is why this process cannot be marginalised. The main factor in the population changes in those rural settlements is the inflow of population from urban settlements,  Population working age post-working age total population especially large ones, often at a considerable distance from Kłodzko Land (Wrocław, Poznań, Warsaw) 4 , which leads to significant rejuvenation of the age structure and changes in the education structure of the inhabitants of rural settlements. New inhabitants also contribute to functional changes and revive the economy of villages, undertaking and developing business activities (especially in the realm of tourism and agrotourism) and organising various initiatives which might be identified as creative activities ( A perfect example of a 'reviving' rural settlement is Sienna in Stronie Śląskie Gmina. Throughout the entire post-war period Sienna was depopulating, declining to 19 inhabitants in 1988. In the 1970s the authorities attempted to create a ski resort there as a part of the 'Second Zakopane' project, however those plans were not realised (Salwicka 1978). In 1996 a ski centre Czarna Góra (Fig. 6) was opened in the area of the settlement, which made a considerable contribution to the revival of tourism in the entire Śnieżnik Massif. As a result, there was a rapid development of tourist infrastructure in Sienna and its neighbouring villages (in Sienna alone in 2013 there were 485 bedspaces). In the settlement there was also a slight increase in population (Fig. 7) caused by migration inflow, which resulted in a considerable rejuvenation of the population structure and a transformation of the education structure of the inhabitants of the settlement.
Another village located in Stronie Śląskie Gmina is the settlement of Bielice. After WWII the settlement was systematically depopulated. In 1978 there were only 9 inhabited households in Bielice. The decline of the village was only stopped by the two forestry enterprises which operated within its boundaries. In 1970s both Wrocław intelligentsia and people affiliated with the Baptist church began to settle in Bielice. It was also the time of the building of 'Chatka Cyborga' -a facility for students of the Cybernetics Department of Wrocław University of Technology and Sciences. Thanks to all these changes, the settlement became a well-known and often visited tourist site. In between 1981-89 it was also a meeting place of the Polish and Czechoslovakian anti-communist movements. Since June 2002, Majowie Guesthouse has been the location of the so-called 'Bielice University', which organises meetings with interesting people, such as scientists, researchers, travellers and journalists. In addition, thanks to cooperation with Chata Paprsek in the Rychlebské Mountains (Czech Republic), Bielice is also a place known for cross-country skiing.
The rural settlement of Lasówka (Bystrzyca Kłodzka Gmina) is located on the other side of Kłodzko Land, in the Dzika Orlica Valley. The village was established in the 17th century in the vicinity of a glass factory, while in the 19th century a match factory was opened there. During the interwar period, the settlement was also a popular holiday resort. After WWII the industry disappeared in that region, and, because of the location of the village next to the border, Lasówka ceased to be a tourist venue. As a result of the changes mentioned above, the settlement started to depopulate. At the end of 1990s, the village started to be settled by a population mainly originating from Wrocław and other big urban settlements located in central Poland. New buildings serving the function of 'second homes' began to appear in the village. However, a considerable number of the new inhabitants settled there permanently which resulted in the reactivation of the local community (renovation of the local church (Fig. 8), organisation of Lasówka Days and numerous recreational and sports events; a majority of the buildings serve as agritourist farms). Among the factors which contributed to the revival of the settlement, one can list its favourable location, as well as the proximity of the ski resort in Zieleniec.
One of the manifestations of the qualitative changes currently taking place in the local communities of the depopulating rural settlements of Kłodzko Land is the functioning of websites devoted to particular settlements (Tab. 1), as well as to local associations. Usually the activities cited are run by so-called 'local leaders', who play an important role in the reactivation of local communities. Usually they are individuals with higher education, who arrived in the village from a big urban settlement (mostly from Wrocław) a few or a dozen years before. These people, inspired by the beauty of the landscape, calmness and lifestyle different from that of a big city, found their dream dwelling places in these depopulating villages.

Conclusion
Based on the analyses conducted concerning current trends in population change in rural areas in Kłodzko Land, the following conclusions can be drawn: • The population processes that have taken place in the rural settlements of Kłodzko Land are of a complex nature, therefore they should not be considered as a simple system. Besides the constant depopulation dominating in numerous settlements and ageing processes, new phenomena are starting to emerge, such as: suburbanisation in the vicinity of Kłodzko or the inflow of population from big urban settlements and the revival of villages considered until now as declining. • The revival of villages mainly located on the Śnieżnik Massif and in the Bystrzyca Mountains is a process taking place on a small scale (resulting in a minor growth of population) as far as the quantitative aspect is concerned. Nevertheless, what is important is its qualitative aspect. As a result of the inflow of new inhabitants, in numerous villages there has been an almost total replacement of the population, which has led to a considerable lowering of the age structure and a transformation of the structure of education. New inhabitants contribute to the reactivation of local communities by undertaking and developing both economic and social activities. • The rural settlements of Kłodzko Land are undergoing intensive development and are regaining their tourist function. The tourist function constitutes a solid ground for the development of this area however it will definitely not solve all its socio-economic problems. That is why, depending on the type of gmina, it should be adequately supplemented by other forms of activity, such as industry, which was the mainstay of the functioning of the Sudety villages until the end of the 20th century.
Here is it important to consider the causes of the phenomenon of the revival of rural settlements in mountainous regions. In the opinion of the authors these are: • A growing awareness of the possibilities of the unused potential of these regions. Today such regions are not considered simply as places of hard farm work in difficult mountainous conditions, or as an idyllic tranquil retreat for artists looking for an escape from the hustle and bustle of a city, but also as a source of potential income. • The increasing economic activity of the inhabitants of reviving villages. In previous years such activity concentrated mainly on traditional agricultural production, however, for a dozen or so years now, it is in many cases supported by other types of activity (e.g. agricultural activity). By doing so, the inhabitants are able to use additional living space in their houses and utility buildings. • Increasing dynamics related to the emergence of new entities outside the agricultural realm which is often related to outside capital. This economic stimulus, often coming from urban areas, is frequently observed and copied by the local population. Such copying of good practice (ideas for one's own business) reassures the inhabitants as to the local potential of the area (e.g. as to the above average, often unique environmental value) and, thereby provides even stronger stimulation of economic activity of the settlements examined. • The increasing mobility of the inhabitants. The declining villages have always struggled with accessibility to transportation (it was one of the main reasons for their decline). Currently, despite continuous exclusion with regard to transportation (in the case of public transportation), it does not seem to constitute such a serious hindrance, as the majority of inhabitants are able to afford their own means of transportation. • An increasing significance of modern means of communication and the popularisation of e-work. As a result of the developments mentioned above, distances seem shrink to a certain extent. Modern tools used in work are often key factors in making decisions to settle in rural areas. Nevertheless, it is important to bear in mind that despite favourable phenomena accompanying the revival of rural settlements, this process can also result in considerable landscape changes interfering with spatial harmony, or even leading to a change in the individual character of particular settlements; an example of this could be Sienna, where the scale of investments connected with development of the Czarna Góra ski resort changed the character of the settlement.
Editors' note: Unless oth erwise stated, the sources of tables and figures are the authors', on the basis of their own research.