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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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The study area (16 km2) in "Ujście Warty" National Park, W Poland - was the valley of a lowland river at its confluence with the River Odra, covered by a mosaic of grassy vegetation and willow scrub. 111 breeding attempts were recorded during 2000-2002. The mean nest density (3.2 nests/km2) was higher than that recorded by other authors in agricultural landscapes, but lower than in urban areas. The nest construction was adapted to fit young willow trees. The mean clutch size was similar to that recorded in other populations (4.43), but eggs were smaller (41.2 mm x 29.1 mm). The hatching success was lower (76%) in comparison with other studies, but the mean number of fledglings (2.15 per nest and 2.96 per nest in successful broods) was relatively high. The main reasons for losses were unhatched eggs, predators, starved nestlings and poor nest construction. We hypothesise that the smaller egg size and lower hatching success recorded in this population was due to unfavourable and unpredictable feeding conditions (floods) during the period of egg formation and egg laying. Later in the season, receding floodwaters laid bare areas suitable for foraging on invertebrates; waterfowl eggs also became readily available. As a result of good conditions during chick rearing, the overall reproductive output was relatively high in comparison with other populations.
The study contains a comparative presentation of the results of studies on the geobotanical characters and primary production of two different types of meadows. Attention is drawn to the considerable differences between the meadows in respect of habitat conditions, floristic composition, production value, domination of species and dynamics of plant biomass formation during the growing season. These meadows belong to two associations: Stellario-Deschampsietum (order Molinietalia) and Arrhenatheretum medioeuropaeum (order Arrhenatheretalia).
The study is concerned with the group properties of five populations of Spergula vernalis Willd. in relation to abiotic and biotic habitat conditions. Measurements of density included frequenry, numbers and biomass, taking into account the participation of the different plant organs in biomass. The distribution of individuals in space was estimated and the results supplemented by examination of the degree of their aggregation. The natality of the populations was described on the basis of several factors: flowering and fruiting biology, pollen and seed germination capacity, fruit and seed production, weight and caloric value of seeds. Curves of survivorship were given for the populations, plotted on the basis of the number of individuals dying in several stages of ontogenesis and the net growth index of the populations .
The study is concerned with the most important aspects of the water economics of a pioneer dune species – Spergula vernalis Willd. Examination was made of transpiration, suction power of leaves and water content in leaves during the course of 24 hours and in the ontogenesis of the plant in relation to several habitat factors. In addition the maximal water content in leaves and wilting point in the early stage of development and also during the flowering period, were determined for this plant. Measurements were made during two growing seasons on a dune in the Toruń Basin.
The study of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea, Papilionoidea) wascarried out in the Narew National Park, in two strictly protected areas under development: “Grobla pod Kurowem” and “Rynki”. A total of 40 butterfly species representing 5 families: Papilionidae (1 species), Pieridae (7 species), Lycaenidae (9 species), Nymphalidae (21 species) and Hesperiidae (2 species) were registered altogether. Most of these have wide distribution ranges and are commonly found in Poland, especially in various open dry habitats. Only four species: Lycaena dispar, Coenonympha oedippus, C. tulliaand Heteropterus morpheus,are primarily associated with or specific to moist habitats. Three species: Papilio machaon, Apatura ilia and C. oedippusare legally protected in Poland.
The study of inland free-living nematodes is relatively imperfect in China, only seventeen papers were previously published. Since the early researches in 2030s, few works have been accomplished until 80s. Altogether 171 taxa were formerly recorded, among which, overeighty species have been recombined. A checklist of the former records with notes on their distribution is presented in this paper. Recently, the function of free-living nematodes has received much attention from Chinese zoologists. Hence, the present authors carried out their studies with emphasis on taxonomy of inland nematodes. During the survey of freshwater lakes, two species are found to be new to science. Aphanonchus orientalis sp. nov. is characterized by having sclerotized vagina, the presence of 1011 tubular supplements and 4262 alveoli supplements in males, but no alveoli in females. Daptonema limnobia sp. nov. is distinguished from other species of the genus in the presence of larger and more anteriorly located amphids, shorter bifurcated spicules, smaller apophysis of gubernaculum, shorter terminal setae, and postvulval uterine sac in females.
The study of molluscs of the River Muchawka in 1999 and 2000 revealed the presence of 12 speciesof molluscs, including 5 species of bivalves and 7 species of snails. Dominant species included Pisidium amnicum (L.) andSphaerium rivicola (L.) among bivalves, and Bithynia tentaculata (L.) and Lymnaea stagnalis (L.) among snails. Unio pictorum(L.),a protected species, was recorded in the upper course and at the river mouth. The highest number of species were found in the upper watercourse and the lowest at sites near the river mouth.
The study of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) was carried out in 2000 in Narew National Park (NPN), in two strictly protected areas under development and in the manor park at Kurowo. Mosquitoes were also collected indoors. A total of 21 species were registered (about 44.7% of the mosquito species in Poland or ca 58% of species recorded in lowland Poland). The species commonly or frequently recorded from lowland Poland make up the majority (86%) of the species recorded. 14% are species rarely found in Poland (Ochlerotatus euedes was recorded from all the study areas in NPN and constituted an essential component of the mosquito community in spring; two other species, Cx. torrentium and Cx. territans, were cap-tured as wintering females). A great proportion (43%) of the species prefer bodies of water in open areas for their larvae to develop, whereas 28% of them have no special habitat preferences; their larvae develop either in bodies of water in woodland or in open areas. Only 19% were those preferring bodies of water in woodland and in brushwood. Two species had specific habitat requirements for development of their larvae; Oc. riparius and Coquillettidia richiardii.In late spring and in summer, Ae. cinereus, Oc. cantans and Oc. annulipes were the most abundant species recorded in nature while malaria mosquitoes (Anopheles maculipennis) were the most numerous in buildings. Culex pipienswas clearly dominant among wintering mosquitoes. In summer, no mass occurrence of the flood species Ae. vexans and Oc. sticticuswas recorded. The mosquitoes of NPN included nine species from among ten potentially effective vectors of human diseases in Poland. Four of these species belong to the most abundant mosquitoes in this area.
The study on the occurrence of amphibians in the city of Słupsk (NW Poland) was conducted during their breeding season in 40 water bodies located in a built-up area, at a forest edge, and in a ruderal area of the city. Breeding amphibians were recorded from 27 water bodies, or 67.5% of them. The number of amphibian species varied between 0 and 7, with an average of 2.2, depending on the location and the degree of modification of the water bodies. The average number of breeding species was 1.2 in the built-up area, 2.8 at the forest edge, and 2.3 in the ruderal areas. Breeding amphibians avoided human- modified water bodies, where only 0.6 species were noted as compared with 2.6 species in natural ones. In total, 9 species of amphibians were recorded from Słupsk. The most frequently observed were the common frog and the common toad, less frequently green frogs, the smooth newt, and the moor frog. Infrequentlyoccurred: the common spadefoot, the natterjack toad the fire-bellied toad.
The study presents a method for estimating the size of the home range by means of the number of traps coming within its limits. This method was verified, and then home range size estimated for three species of small forest rodents, Apodemus flavicollis (Melch.). A. agrarius (Pall.) and Clethrionomys glareolus (Schreb.).
The study provides a comprehensive list of publications concerning data on spider distribution in Poland. A list includes 1089 original papers, book chapters, books, conference papers with original records on spider species from the contemporary territory of Poland <br>
The study relates to the Little Owl Athene noctua, Barn Owl Tyto alba, Tawny Owl Strix aluco, and Long-eared Owl Asio otus. By coexistence is meant the simultaneous nesting, or territorial occupation in the breeding period, of more than one owl species within the area of one farm. Altogether, 48 territories of owls in 16 farm building complexes were found. Distances between nearest-neighbour nest sites were 16-203 m. In the Little Owl the average distance was 43 m ą 28, in the Tawny Owl 159 m ą 61. The number of young in broods of Little Owls nesting in coexistence was significantly lower compared to those nesting with other owls. The considerable incidence of coexistence found was related to the specific conditions of the study area: "islands" of farm building complexes offered favourable nesting sites, while the surrounding monoculture fields provided hunting territories with only limited opportunities for nesting. The productivity of the Little Owl and Barn Owl in the study area was low, probably because of interactions brought about by nesting in close proximity.
The study results of the type specimens of tenebrionid beetles described as Apsheronellus arenarius Bogačev, 1967, Microleichenum choresmensis G. Medvedev,1973, Lobodera (Discotus) kaszabi Skopin, 1960, Penthicus (Allomyladion) kaszabi Bogačev, 1972, Prosodes (Laraliporosodes) lar Bogačev, 1947 and Achaemenus villosus Bogačev, 1949 are presented in this paper. The following nomenclatural decisions are proposed: Microleichenium G. Medvedev, 1973 is considered a junior synonym of the name Apsheronellus Bogačev, 1967; Penticus (Allomyladion) kaszabi Bogačev, 1972 is considered a secondary junior homonym of Lobodera (D.) kaszabi Skopin, 1960 and as result, the first name is changed on Penthicus (Allomyladion) zoltani Medvedev et Iwan, nom. nov.; Prosodes (Laraliprosodes) lar Bogačev, 1947 is transferred to the subgenus Dineria Motschulsky of the genus Blaps F. and as result, Dineria Motschulsky, 1860 (type species: Blaps confuse Ménétriés, 1832) is considered a senior synonym of Laraliprosodes Bogačev, 1942 (type species: Prosodes lar Bogačev, 1942); the name Achaemenus Bogačev, 1949 is considered a junior homonym of Achaemenus Stål, 1856 (Cicadinea, Homoptera) and is replaced by Bogatshevia G. Medvedev et Iwan, nom. nov. (type species: Achaemenus villosus Bogačev, 1949).
The study was aimed at showing to what extent variations in the number of insects obtained in quantitative samples illustrate the variations in abundance of the whole population living in a meadow habitat, and what the ratio of these two parts of the population is, using a population of Cicadella viridis L. (Auchenorrhyncha - Homoptera) as an example. It was found that the C. viridis population is divided into one part living in the grass layer, and one part living in the litter layer. As a result of the vertical movements of the insects the ratio of these two parts of the population varies during the growing season. The following methods, adapted to the conditions of the study population, were used for calculating absolute population numbers: the Lincoln index and the De Lury graphic method. In addition a method based on the vertical movements of the population and extent of reduction among the insects during the growing season was elaborated and used.
The study was carried out between 1996 and 1998 on a plot covered by mixed woodland near the southern boundary of the city of Warsaw. A total of 39 nests were investigated. The woodpeckers laid their eggs during the last ten days of April and at the beginning of May. The mean clutch size was 5.6 (n = 18). The number of young reared differed from season to season and was associated with the fledging date. More fledglings left nests with earlier broods. 81% of broods were successful, i.e. at least one young was reared. The duration of the breeding season - from the laying of the first egg to the fledging of the last chick - was 40-42 days.
The study was carried out between 2000 and 2002 in a semi-evergreen forest in the south-western portion of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, India. A total of 81 cavities in 19 tree species were used for nesting by Malabar Grey Hornbills during the study. Three tree species: Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Terminalia bellirica and T. crenulata together made up 69% of all the nest trees used. The mean height of the nest trees was 36 ą 6 m, girth at breast height 3 ą 1 m and nest height 17 ą 6 m. 35 (67%) nest holes were re-used in 2001 while 21 (40%) nest-holes were re-used in 2002. Terminalia crenulata was the tree re-used most often. Nest fidelity by the Malabar Grey Hornbill was reduced owing to competition by other cavity users.
The study was carried out from May 1988 to April 1993 in two types of tropical forests: the tropical evergreen and moist deciduous. The vertical distribution of birds and foliage abundance was recorded by visual observation in seven height classes, using the line transect method. The vertical distribution of 94 bird species was recorded in evergreen forest, and of 90 in moist deciduous forest. Bird species richness and the numbers of birds were highest in the stratum from 1 to 5 m in both the evergreen forests (57 species) and the moist deciduous forests (68 species). The species richness indices of birds in the two types of forest did not display such a clear relationship. Foliage abundance was high up to a height of 30 m in the evergreen forests, whereas in moist deciduous forests, foliage was abundant only up to 20 m. A significant positive correlation was obtained between foliage abundance and species richness and also between the numbers of birds in both types of forests. No significant correlation was obtained between foliage abundance and the species diversity indices in the two types of vegetation.
The study was carried out in 1994-96 in an area of western Poland where field sizes range widely - from <1 to 50 ha. The spring population density of Partridges was estimated by call counts on 1 km2 study plots. The landscape structure was described by the proportion of crops and orchards, the number of arable fields and the length of permanent cover with spontaneous vegetation. Radio-tagged individuals (24 pairs and 6 single males) were tracked during the breeding season. The Partridge density in the study plots ranged from 0 to 7.7 pairs per km2, and increased with the number of fields per km2 and the proportion of small orchards among the arable fields. Radio-tagged pairs on small fields (<10 ha) preferred field edges with permanent treeless plant cover and edges without permanent plant cover. On large fields (>10 ha), a preference was shown for field edges with both wooded and treeless permanent plant cover. Partridges avoided the centres of both types of fields. Preferred nesting sites were in permanent plant cover and orchards; crops were used less frequently than expected. The spring carrying capacity of the field habitat for Partridges was dependent on the availability of field edges, including those devoid of permanent plant cover.
The study was carried out in 1999-2000 in a 405 ha area urban habitat and revealed one of the highest densities (56.8 pairs/km2) for the species. Breeding density was best predicted by the diversity of trees in the plot and was not limited by the presence of tall trees. Birds used 69% of the available tree species and preferentially selected half of them. Taller tree species were preferred to shorter ones and coniferous trees were preferred to broadleaved ones. Nests higher above the ground were more likely to be successful than nests lower down. The greater the nest height, the earlier the Magpies laid eggs and the more fledglings they produced. Pairs nesting in conifers laid earlier than those in broadleaved trees but there were no significant differences in clutch-size, hatching or fledging success between the two habitats. The nest site preference was not well explained by the success rate. Regardless of species, not only tall trees, where success was greater, were preferred but also smaller ones, despite the lower success rate. Nests in conifers were no more successful than those in broadleaved trees, despite the marked preference for conifers. Magpies that succeeded in their final breeding attempts in one season were less likely to make a contrasting nest-site choice the following season. The lack of a clear adjustment between the nest-site selection pattern and breeding success was hypothesized to be due to two non-exclusive mechanisms: 1) either there are no strong selective pressures at any type of nest-site and on the behavioral plasticity of Magpies or else selective pressures may change during the season; 2) the dependence of nest-site selection on bird quality.
The study was carried out in 2000-2002 around 6 rookeries. Rooks foraged in numbers from 1 to 132 birds (n = 417); flocks of less than 10 individuals were dominant. The type of crop influenced the size of a foraging flock. Most of the rooks were recorded within 0.5-1 km of the rookery, while the greatest distance of a foraging ground from the rookery (>> = 2833.3 m) depended on the size of that rookery. Spring corn, meadows and pastureland were of the greatest significance in the rooks foraging area. Winter corn and root crops were avoided, while wasteland areas were visited intermittently.
The study was carried out in 3 plots in the province of Punjab (Pakistan) in November 2001. The total population of the Houbara Bustard was estimated at about 4 746 birds with an overall density of 0.147 ą 0.006/km2. The number of birds in Rajanpur/Rojhan was estimated at 685, in Thal at 672 and in Cholistan at 3 389
The study was carried out in central Poland (52°15'N, 19°25'E) by all-day visual observation of five nests of Barn Swallows feeding their nestlings. Feeding frequency of older (age of 14-20 days) nestlings changed significantly with time of the day and was highest (46 visits/h) before noon, declining in the afternoon (21 visits/h) and after a slight increase during the early evening (25 visits/h) declining again in late evening. Feeding frequency of younger (age of 6 days) nestlings did not showed significant changes in the day cycle (average 20 visits/h). The proportion of midday feedings increased with nestling age while the proportion of evening feedings.
The study was carried out in the outskirts of the town of Pécs (southern Hungary) in a recultivated former coal mine. Bordered by Turkey Oak forests, this open area forms a wedge-shaped clearing in that woodland. Since trees and taller shrubs are rare in the area, it is mainly ground nesting bird species that occur in the clearing. In order to discover whether it is more advantageous to nest in the recultivated area (clearing) than in the nearby forest or at its edges, 150 artificial ground nests were constructed. On 7 May 2002, one quail egg and a plasticine egg of similar size were placed in each of the artificial nests. After a week it was found that 24% of nests in the clearing, 30% of those in the forest edge, and 44% of the ones inside the forest had suffered depredation. The proportions of damaged plasticine and quail eggs inside the forest and at the forest edge were similar, whereas the quail eggs in the clearings were significantly less damaged than plasticine eggs. Of all the experimental eggs, significantly more plasticine eggs (29%) were damaged than quail eggs (17%), which suggests that small-bodied predators are unable to break the quail eggs. 18% of the plasticine eggs attacked, and 72% of the quail eggs attacked were removed from the nest by the predator. Among the predators, small mammals were dominant in the clearing and inside the forest, and birds at the forest edge. Based on the predation of quail eggs, the survival chances of ground nests in the clearing are greater than at the forest edge or inside the forest.
The study was carried out in two nature reserves in Warsaw (central Poland) in 1992-1995. Following aspects of Dendrocopos major nest hole's localisation are describing: tree species, height above the ground, tree trunk girth, condition of tree, tree fragrnent (in which nest was located) and entrance's exposure. Near all nest's parameters were different between two study areas what suggest that Great Spotted Woodpecker is quite indiscriminate in nest site selection.
The study was carried out in two sites fluvial mires (FM) in Netherlands, and at salt marshes (SM) and the borders of lagoons (BL) in Spain. All 58 nests were found in unmown and ungrazed vegetation. Carex species were dominant at the nesting sites in FM, but not Phragmites australis. Juncus maritimus was dominant in the SM and at BL. The plant communities at and around the nest sites of FM differed from those of SM+BL.At nest height from the side the nest was mostly only poorly visible. Nests at nest height and eggs at observer eye level were invisible among dense clusters of Juncus maritimus tussocks. Visibility of eggs in reed stands mixed with Carex species and in Sparganium erectum stands was mostly poor and moderate respectively. This was in contrast to nests situated among Juncus maritimus stems. Here, at eye-level the eggs were very conspicuous. For the most part, an incubating Water Rail on the nest at eye-level was hardly visible in any of the various stands. The vegetation height of nest sites in SM and BL was considerably less than in FM owing to the absence of Phragmites australis. The water depth at the nest sites varied. The nest height in tussocks of Juncus maritimus was greater. The nest material corresponded to the plant species in the immediate vicinity of the nest.
The study was carried out on 94 abandoned arable fields (0.1-83.5 ha) comprising a total area of 400 ha in the intensively farmed region of the Wrocław plain (54.8 km2, SW Poland). A total of 101 Whinchat territories were found in the study area, all of them in abandoned crop fields with a well-developed layer of dried perennials from the previous year (Tanacetum vulgare, Artemisia vulgaris, Solidago sp.). Whinchats occupied 56 (60%) of the 94 fields surveyed. The probability of a Whinchat occupying a particular field was closely related to its size: the probability of occupation was 50% in fields of about 1.8 ha, and rose to 100% in fields larger than 13 ha. Single males occupied thirty-eight territories (37.6%). The number of Whinchat territories per occupied abandoned field lay between 1 and 14. Thirty-three fields held only a single Whinchat territory. The density of Whinchat territories was negatively correlated with the size of an abandoned field. Single males inhabited the smallest fields.
The study was conducted from 1997–2001 in the city of Słupsk. Observations of individually marked birds were conducted from blinds located at city-centre sites where Feral Pigeons breed. The pigeons bred throughout the year, with peak broods in spring and summer. Different pairs timed their breeding such that the beginning of the season (from October to September of the next calendar year) overlapped the dates of completion (from April to December). 10% of pairs had already begun breeding in the autumn, while 86% did so between January and May. The remaining pairs (young ones, in particular) started breeding even later, mainly because of the lack of suitable nesting sites. The breeding period most often ended between August and October (75% of pairs), when the pigeons began their moult. 91% of the young birds joined the breeding population in their second calendar year of life. The remaining young birds had their first broods in the first or third calendar year of life. Pairs of young birds started nesting 2–3 months later than adult birds. The average length of a pair's breeding season was 183 days.
The study was conducted in the buffer zone of the Kampinos National Park 30 km north from Warsaw in the growing seasons (April-October) of 1997-1999. In addition to element input into common rain collectors, their aerosol-gaseous input was determined, using collectors with artificial leaves of known surface areas -2, 6, and 12 m2 m-2. It was found that the input of the majority of elements markedly increased with increasing artificial leaf area (Na+, N-NH4+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, N-NO3-, S-SO42-, P-PO43-, and less intensively Cd2+ and Cu2+). This was not the case of H+, Zn2+, Pb2+, and atmospheric input of water. Proportional increase in anions and cations neutralising them accompanied increasing artificial leaf area, so that water acidity was stable. As a result of parallel increases in the input of most elements with increasing leaf area proportions between elements were maintained at fairly the same level in leaf area gradient.
The study was conducted in the Lake Karaś reserve (N Poland), where the density of Willow Warblers in osier and birch thickets reached 28.7-33.3 p/10 ha. Collar rings were used to collect the food brought to the nestlings. 487 food samples were collected from 26 nests, comprising 2573 food items. 167 of the samples were from females (652 individual food items), 95 from males (616 food items). The nestlings were fed mainly on Arthropoda (94.6%) and Mollusca (5.4%). The dominant food items were Diptera (29.8%), Homoptera (28.7%), Ephemeroptera (10.5%), Araneida (7.6%) and Trichoptera (6.5%). The composition of the dominant food items and the average mass of food deliveries changed markedly with nestling growth. The types of food brought by each sex also varied significantly. Males brought heavier portions of food consisting of larger numbers of lighter prey. However, the composition of these portions was not as diverse as those brought by females. This may be related to differences between males and females in their respective territories and foraging techniques.
The study was conducted in the years 1989-1993. The Black Kite fed primarily on birds and fish. Red Kite - on birds, mammals and carrion, the White-tailed Eagle - almost exclusively on birds and fish, and the Lesser Spotted Eagle on small mammals, birds and frogs. The White-tailed Eagle was the most specialised species. Its food niche breadth was smallest among the studied species and food taken in water habitats accounted for 95% of its diet. The Black Kite had the widest food spectrum in terms of the frequency of prey while the Red Kite - in terms of the biomass consumed. The mean body mass of prey specimens taken by the White-tailed Eagle was 578 g, by the Red Kite - 235 g, the Black Kite - 230 g, and the Lesser Spotted Eagle - 34 g. The food niches of both Kites and the White-tailed Eagle strongly overlapped. The smallest overlap was between the food niches of the two Eagles and between the Lesser Spotted Eagle and the Black Kite.
The study was conducted in Western Poland during three breeding seasons (1996-1998). Spontaneous song rate changes and playback experiments were used to determine functions of the song in two closely related, sympatric species: Eurasian Treecreeper and Short-toed Treecreeper. Substantial differences in spontaneous song rate and reaction to playback between the studied treecreepers were found. On average Short-toed Treecreeper had a two times higher song rate and longer song bouts than Eurasian Treecreeper. Both species reacted stronger to the playback during the prebreeding and egg-laying stages than during the incubation/feeding stage. Therefore, the primary function of the song in these sibling species is to deter rival males from gaining access to the territory and fertile females. We found no evidence that the song was directly related to mate attraction or stimulation. When reacting to the playback the response patterns differed between the two species, but the overall experimental song response was similar. Interspecific differences in the singing pattern can be explained by dissimilar territorial behaviour. Short-toed Treecreeper bred in clusters, leading to frequent and more ritualized countersinging between rival males. Eurasian Treecreeper territories were scattered and separated by unoccupied habitat. This probably explains why the males rarely sing spontaneously, but behave more aggressively when rivals intrude.
The study was focused on the analysis of the effect of the nutrient loads from cultivated and fertilized watershed on the ion balance in wetland ecotones. The investigations were carried out in Masurian Lakeland (NE Poland) in small (0.2 ha) fens dominated by cattail association. Wetland ecotones constitute an effective biogeochemical barrier in respect to nitrates. However, they do not protect lakes against other eutrophication factors arising as the result of multi functional character of biogeochemical processes in the wetland environment under pression of nutrients of fertilizing origin. The eutrophication of waters can be enhanced by increased amounts of potassium, phosphates, and dissolved organic nitrogen moving out from wetland ecotones.
Study was made of the effect exerted on the reproduction of spider Enoplognatha ovata (Clerck) by forest island ecotones and their differentiation resulting from island size, type of vegetation and exposure (southern and northern ecotones). Evaluation was made of female density and numbers of cocoons, as well as of female fecundity characterized by the following indices: cocoon size (number of eggs laid), cocoon validity (percentage of fertilized eggs) and cocoon viability (percentage of young spiders which left the cocoon). Reproduction losses at the embryonic development stage in the cocoon, caused by embryo mortality, were calculated. The birch-aspen woodlot ecotones and ecotones with southern exposure, as compared with the Pino-Quercetum forest island ecotones, were characterized by higher individual fecundity and smaller losses in E. ovata reproduction. The differences between the ecotone and forest island interior in spider reproduction were more clear-cut in the case of the larger islands (13.5 ha).
Study was made of the effect of supplying various elements (N, P, K, Ca, S) to soil on the rates of needle and litter production, translocation of elements and their return to litter in a pine sapling. Fertilization with N, P or K led to a significant increase in the needle production rate, with simultaneous preservation of the ratios among nutrient elements in the foliage. The applied treatments caused small changes in the element retranslocation ef[iciency, which led, however, to significant alternations of the chemical composition of needlefall.
Stylosomus arnoldi, sp. nov. from Tunisia, is described and illustrated.
The subject of the study was Lobelia dortmanna population structure under various biotope and phytocoenose conditions of the same phytolittoral depth range (0.8-1.0 m) in two lakes in northern Poland. L dortmanna populations were a priori subdivided into 9 smaller comparative units (subpopulations) on the basis of the following criteria: homogeneity of the biochore (i.e., area occupied by a phytocoenose) and the same plant community type. Within the subpopulations the following were determined: (1) density, (2) spatial organization, (3) age distribution, (4) proportion of seeds and vegetative diaspores. The method used was microscale underwater charting. The study was carried out in the period 1980-1984.
The subject of this study is analysis of the distribution of Auchenorrhyncha in the layers of meadow plants. It was found that species of Auchenorrhyncha tend to occupy definite layers of plants regardless of the type of the meadow habitats examined. Vertical movements of Auchenorrhyncha during the growing season are connected with their life cycle. The habitat influences the vertical distribution of the population through the change in the life cycle of the species. The layer distribution of Auchenorrhyncha in the layers of meadow plants is also influenced by the population density and the place occupied by the population in the domination structure of the community.
Sulphur dioxide, fluoride compounds and nitrogen oxides are considered to be gaseous pollutants which are most toxic to plants. Depending on concentration and duration of exposure, they can cause visible injuries to leaves (such as chlorosis and necrosis) or hidden injuries. Dusts containing heavy metals are also toxic to plants and can affect animals too, even at minimum concentrations. Air pollution occurs usually as a mixture of dust and phytotoxic gases, composition of which implies the degree of harm done to living organisms. Biological monitoring involves regular application of biological assessment techniques and methods, to gather information about quality and condition of biological systems. In case of two groups of pollutants that are of importance in Poland: heavy metals and sulphur compounds, the method of bioindication using higher plants (alfalfa, ryegrass and two species of clover) may be applied. The method allows assessment of range, dynamics and character of environmental disturbances caused by industrial emissions.
Summer zooplankton of four lakes was studied for 11 years. In the years 1971-1974 the lakes were treated with inorganic fertilizers (NPK) and then the fertilization was stopped. Significant changes indicating a higher trophic state could be seen in the years of inorganic fertilization in lakes with an initially low pH. The ceasing of fertilization resulted in an insignificant drop of the trophic state of the study lakes, the stronger the zooplankton initial response to inorganic fertilization, the greater the fall of the trophic state. This did not, however, cause the summer zooplankton communities to recover an abundance and structure level similar to that recorded in the control year (1970).
The Superb Lyrebird is a sexually dimorphic passerine that although is not considered endangered, it has been declining in population size since the 1940s due primarily to urban development. Recent reports suggest that lyrebirds may be threatened by chlamydial infection. We studied levels of faecal infection by two microparasites in lyrebirds: Chlamydophila psittaci and Escherichia coli in the Sherbrooke Forest, south-eastern Australia. Fresh faecal samples were obtained from 33 lyrebirds (15 adult females, 13 adult males and 5 juveniles) — estimated of 27.5% of the population, all of them tested negative to Ch. psittaci. E. coli prevalence was compared between adult males and females and no difference was found. This result is expected, for instance, if E. coli is sexually transmitted and lyrebirds are promiscuous. Trends for juveniles to be more parasitized than adults were detected, but they were statistically not significant. Behavioural analyses of video footage indicate that E. coli infected birds did not allocate more or less time to any of the activities considered than did non infected birds. This might suggest that E. coli infection in lyrebirds is relatively benign, and behavioural effects may thus be subtle. No significant differences were found in specific measurements of foraging behaviour but non infected birds tended to scratch more frequently than infected birds.
The supplement to the monographs on ptyctimous mites of Pacific Islands (Niedbała 1994, 1998) and Australian Region (Niedbała 2000), presents the species selected and identified from the samples collected at new localities in these regions. In total the supplement presents 107 species, including one of Protoplophoridae, 3 of Mesoplophoridae, 28 of Euphthiracaroidea and 75 of Phthiracaroidea (...).
The survey conducted in 1983-85 in 535 fruit orchards and small fruit plantings, distributed all over the country, revealed association of82 plant parasitic nematode species of eight families with fourteen fruit crops, except strawberry, commonly grown in Poland. All species occurred in the soil in the vicinity of roots. 42 were also encountered in the roots of crops, usually seldom and in low densities in comparison with that in nearby soil. Only some species of the families Pratylenchidae,Hoplolamidae, Tylenchulidaeand Criconematidae occurred relatively abundantly in the roots of some crops. Species of the families Belonolaimidae and Trichodoridae were seldom encountered in the roots and usually in small numbers. No species of the families Longidoridae and Hemicycliophoridae were found in the roots of any fruit crops. The occurrence of the majority of recorded species, expressed either intheir frequency or population density, was significantly related to the surveyed fruit crops and soil type (mechanical composition and acidity). Most of the species preferred light sandy soils and acid or slightly acid ones. However, several species, particularly from the families Hoplolamidae and Tylenchulidae, preferred heavy soils. The paper also discusses the feeding habits of particular taxonomic groups, their harmfulness to fruit crops in temperate climates and their possible economic role in Polish fruit culture.
Surveys of the Roman snails were carried out in the Ojców National Park, at three experimental sites. In a population that had been rejuvenated due to exploitation a reduction in fecundity was found; with an increased mobility of individuals this meant a lack of partners for mating. Food supplies and migrations are factors determining the density. An experimental increase in density caused by man accelerates the mobility and reduces the fecundity. Emigration was more often found among introduced individuals, differing in size from the native ones. On the basis of the annual shell increments it has been established that the growth of an individual usually continues for 4 years, often still after the attainment of sexual maturity, whereas the body size of individuals from local habitats varies as a result of selection.
The Synchita variegata species group is defined and revised. Six species are recognized. Synchita fallax sp. nov. from Southern Europe is described. Lectotype is designated forCicones pictus Erichson and for Cicones oculatus Sharp. New synonymies are established: Synchita undata GuÈrin-MÈneville, 1844 (= Cicones pictus Erichson, 1845 syn. nov.) and S. oculata (Sharp, 1885) (= Cicones oblongus Sharp, 1885 syn. nov.). A key to the species is included.
Synurbization is a new term for the process of species adaptation to life under urban conditions. This process involves changes in species behaviour, ecology and genetic treats. In the paper only ecological changes has been described and only in one mammal species. The analysis of environmental conditions encountered by the species in urban areas shows that they differ from natural conditions with respect to many abiotic and biotic factors, such as: (1) microclimate, (2) food conditions, (3) characteristics and distribution of microhabitats occupied by the species (Fig. 1), (4) species composition of predators, parasites and competitors (Fig. 2), presence of man and accumulation of by-products of civilization. Adaptation to these new conditions results in many differences stated between urban and non-urban populations. City dwellers are heavier, better survive the winter period, their reproduction season ends later in autumn; they are more insectivorous than the non-urban ones. Some elements in organization of their populations vary signifficantly, what may be seen in the strong inhibition of maturation of young females, observed in town in the spring (Fig. 3); they also reach very high densities. Alternation of the first four parameters probably results from changes in food, microclimatic and biocenotic conditions. On the other hand, the specific (island-like) distribution of Apodemus agrarius in urban areas should be thought to account for observed differences in population organization and density. The species characteristics advantagous for its synurbization are indicated, and the ecological role of the species in urban environments is discussed. It may be stated that the striped field mouse is well doing in its new environment and should be recognized as a species welcome in our towns.
Tawny owls’ pellets were collected in north-eastern Poland at eight sites situated in forests or at forest edges and four sites in agricultural landscapes. In total, 2046 vertebrate prey items were found, including 1459 at the forest sites and 587 at the rural sites. The types of prey most commonly captured by forest owls were amphibians (25.7%) and Myodes glareolus (14.6%), while rural owls preferred amphibians (17.7%), birds (17.4%) and Mus musculus (16.2%). Comparisons of proportions of selected prey taken by tawny owls made between forest and rural habitats revealed that the capture frequencies of insectivores, M. musculus, Apodemus agrarius and birds are the best indicators of anthropogenic changes in tawny owls’ habitats.
Taxonomic and trophic structure were described – along with indices of diversity and maturity – for nematode communities at six sites influenced by acid rain in the chain of the Karkonosze Mountains and at Hala Izerska (both in south-west Poland). The sites in question were spruce (Picea abies) forest with clear or else relatively limited signs of degradation, with the intensity of this phenomenon being determined in relation to the incidence of treefall, young spruce stands, and grass-herb communities. lntensified degradation was found to reduce the diversity and maturity of nematode communities and to increase the numerical representation of fungivorous species. Dry conditions intensified these changes. The nematode communities of the aforementioned mountainous areas contaminated by acid rain were then compared with those studied by author about 20 years previously in other parts of Poland and considered uncontaminated. Communities from the contaminated areas were not found to have lower total numbers of nematodes, but did differ in the higher representation of fungivores and obligate plant parasites as well as in the absence of predators. A shift in the direction of feeding on fungi was noted among species feeding on reducers. Aspects unique to these communities which were noted on the scale of trophic differentiation were the loss of characteristic K-strategists (specially predators), and also loss of bacterivorous r-strategists in favour of more K-strategic bacterivores.
Taxonomic review of 18 species of the tribe Formicoxenini occurring in Poland is presented, together with information on their geographical ranges, distribution in Poland, and biology. The following species are discussed: Formicoxenus nitidulus (Nyl.), Harpagoxenus sublaevis Mayr, Epimyrma ravouxi (E. André), Doronomyrmex kutteri (Buschinger), Leptothorax (Leptothorax) acervorum (F.), L. (L.) muscorum (Nyl.), L. (L.) gredleri Mayr, L. (Myrafant) albipennis (Curtis), L. (M.) affinis Mayr, L. (M.) clypeatus (Mayr), L. (M.) corticalis (Schenck), L. (M.) interruptus (Schenck), L. (M.) nadigi Kutter, L. (M.) nigriceps Mayr, L. (M.)nylanderi (Foerst.), L. (M.) parvulus (Schenck), L. (M.) tuberum (F.), and L. (M.) unifasciatus (Latr.). Keys for identifying the genera and the species are included.
Tee larval characters and natural history data of five species of Thermophilum Hope, Pachymorpha sexguttata Fabricius, two species of Cypholoba Chaudoir and Eccoptoptera sp are described and analysed phylogenetically. All taxa share the following peculiar larval apomorphies: a row of setae instead of two ground plan setae FR8,9 on adnasale, amembranous bulge between nasale and maxilla, ant ennomeres II+III fused, lacinia enlarged andfused with stipes, posterior claws reduced. Three different groups based on their natural historydata are found. One group with a large number of eggs from which hatch comparatively small larvae. A second group with a medium number of eggs which are fixed on the ceiling of the substrateholes. Both groups pass three active larval instars as in most other carabids. A third group with few, large eggs, a short first instar period, an unsclerotized second instar larva which is inactive,does not feed but pupates.The phylogenetic analysis confirms the sistergroup relationship of Helluonini and Anthiini,and the monophyly of Anthiini. Genus Eccoptoptera Chaudoir is the sister group of the large sized Anthiini including genus Cypholoba. The Cypholobini are non-monophyletic. T. sexmaculatum Fabricius is distinguished in several characters from the rest of Thermophilum species andshould be excluded from this genus. The maintenance of a monophyletic genus complex Anthias. l. Weber implies the convergent development of peculiar natural history characters in Cypholoba and T. sexmaculatum. Pachymorpha sexguttata and parts of the genusThermophilum form a well supported monophyletic group. Therefore, Pachymorpha Hope cannot be separated generically.
Ten genera of the subfamily Doryctinae are recorded from Japan for the first time: Caenophanes Foerster, 1862, Guaygata Marsh, 1993, Leluthia Cameron, 1887, Mimipodoryctes Belokobylskij, 2001, Neurocrassus Šnoflak, 1945, Parallorhogas Marsh, 1993, Platyspathius Viereck, 1911, Polystenus Foerster, 1862, Rhacontsira Belokobylskij, 1998, and Spathiomorpha Tobias, 1976. Twenty five new species and one new subspecies are described from the Japanese islands: Caenophanes confusus sp. nov., C. infuscatus sp. nov., C. kyushuensis sp. nov., C. pumilio sp. nov., C. rasilis sp. nov., C. yakuensis sp. nov., Guaygata mayaensis sp. nov., Leluthia (Leluthia) honshuensis sp. nov., L. (L.) nagoyae sp. nov., L. (Euhecabolodes) postfurcalis sp.nov., Mimipodoryctes rokkoensis sp. nov., Neurocrassus hinoematus sp. nov., N. hypodoryctoides sp. nov. N. ibarakius sp. nov., N. miyanourus sp. nov., N. sanageensis sp. nov., Parallorhogas ambiguus sp. nov., P. boninus sp. nov., P. icarus sp. nov., P. maeseensis sp. nov., P. pacificus sp. nov., P. pacificus micronesianus subsp. nov., Rhacontsira insulicola sp. nov., R. toyota sp. nov., R. yamagishii sp. nov.,Spathiomorpha japonica sp. nov. Six species are recorded for the first time for Japan: Guaygata mariae (Belokobylskij, 1993), Neurocrassus rarus (Belokobylskij, 1982), N. tentorialis Belokobylskij, 1993, Platyspathius ornatulus (Enderlein, 1912), Polystenus rugosus Foerster, 1862, Rhacontsira heterospiloides (Belokobylskij, 1988).Two new synonyms are suggested: Rhyssalus rubriceps Cameron, 1909 = Mimipodoryctes robustus Belokobylskij, 2001 (syn. nov.); Spathiohormius ornatulus Enderlein,1912 = Spathius dinoderi Gahan, 1925 (syn. nov.). The following new combinations are given: Guaygata mariae (Belokobylskij, 1993), comb. nov., Polystenus remus (Nixon,1943), comb. nov., Spathiostenus tenuis (Nixon, 1943), comb. nov. Lectotypes of Spathiohormius ornatulus Enderlein and Rhyssalus rubriceps Cameron aredesignated for stability of nomenclature. Keys to species of the genera Caenophanes Foerster, Guaygata Marsh, Leluthia Cameron, Mimipodoryctes Belokobylskij, Neurocrassus Šnoflak, Parallorhogas Marsh, Rhacontsira Belokobylskij, and Spathiomorpha Tobias are provided.
Ten habitats of A. vesiculosa – disappearing in Europe aquatic plant, have been investigated. The habitats were characterized according to water chemistry, composition of bottom sediments, describing also the coenotic relations, i.e., biotic ones in the phytosociological aspect. An analysis of individual and group characters of plants allowed to find chemical factors of habitats most significant for the growth of plants examined, the best habitats for A . vesiculosa population were indicated, also water chemistry necessary for maintenance cultures or introductions was determined.
Ten pine forest sites located along the transect between 50°28' and 70°09' N were studied. The purposes of the present paper are: 1) to determine the volume of the organic carbon pool in selected layers of the analysed forest ecosystems (shrubs, herb layer, mosses and lichens, litter, and the humus horizon of the soil); and 2) to elaborate the correlation-based prediction models relating the organic carbon pools in these layers with the selected variables characterising the climate and the species richness of the pine forests. The results indicate a clear horizontal heterogeneity of the ground layer in the pine forests considered. This is reflected, in particular, through the differentiation of the carbon pool in particular places within the ecosystem. There is a distinct geographical variability in the carbon pool among the sites in particular layers, with the average annual and January temperatures having the largest influence on this variability. However, in different cases there are different combinations of the factors describing these relations in the best way. The relations between the carbon pool and the species richness of the sites along the transect show that either the minimal carbon pool occurs at sites of an average species richness, or there is no relation between these variables. The analysis implies that there are two points of the transect at which various characteristics of the system undergo an abrupt shift. The first of them is equivalent to the passage of the annual +1°C isotherm, while the second at approximately 5-6°C. There is the possibility that these regularities occur within the entire range of the pine forests.
Ten species of leafhoppers, among which Macrosteles laevis (Rib.) dominated, were found to occur on rye in the Koscian administrative district in the West Poland. More species occur on fields which are worse invaded by weeds. A total of 43 species were found to occur in the herb layer of shelterbelts. The species encountered on rye were dominants. Maximum density of these leafhoppers varied in different fields from 34 to 243 individuals/m2; densities in shelterbelts - 21 individuals/m2. A shelterhelt affects the distribution of leafhoppers in the field adjacent to it: numbers are lowest at the end of the field near the shelterbelt, and highest at a distance of about 50 m from the latter.
The term partial resistance is proposed for the phenomenon of the simultaneous existence in a population of individuals which react to the insecticides applied as sensitive, resistant and intermediate. Partial resistance was obtained under laboratory conditions by crossing resistant and sensitive strains of Tetranychus urticae Koch. It was also observed in populations of Trichogramma evanescens Westw. and Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. at the beginning of selection in relation to Metasystox. It can also be characteristic of populations previously made resistant, in which resistance, as a recessive trait, begins to disappear after selection pressure is removed.
Territoriality in breeding Whitethroats were examined on colour-ringed individuals in two areas located in different geographical regions: Low Volga and Caucasus coast of the Black Sea. In the Caucasus region 29% of males were polyterritorial (6% - bigynous) whereas in the Volga region no cases of males polyterritoriality nor bigyny were observed. Literature reveals that in regions, where polygyny in the Whitethroat was observed, the breeding period is short and the species has only one breeding cycle in a season. In the areas where the breeding period is long, bigyny has not been found, but cases of double-broodness was observed. Author suggests that bigyny in the Whitethroat evolved as a response to the short breeding season, which does not allow males to have two successive broods in a season. The only way to increase their reproductive success is to establish a second territory immediately after the first female starts to lay.
Territoriality in Red-breasted Flycatchers was studied in the Białowieża Forest of Eastern Poland during five consecutive breeding seasons (2000–2004). In total 99 males were individually marked, and evidence of polyterritoriality was found in 10% of them. The proportion of polyterritorial males varied from 0% (in 2003) to 13.6% (in 2001). The mean distance between the first and second territories was 278 m (± 179.37, n = 10). The rate of polyterritoriality was not related to age class, as older males defended dual territories that were, on average, not more distantly separated than those of younger males. One case of polygyny was recorded. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence for polyteritoriality and polygyny in male Red-breasted Flycatchers.
The test was carried out in the Central Poland, during the autumn migration in years 1997 and 1998, and the object was the Robin Erithacus rubecula. The aim of the study was the verification of the new field method for studying directional preferences in small Passerine migrants, proposed by Busse (1995). In total, 843 Robins were tested in "Busse's cage". Directions preferred by the tested birds were distributed in conformance with wintering areas and migration routes of the species known from literature. Robins with dark legs and grey plumage at flanks pointed at the directions according to the axis Scandinavia - the Balkans, which is in consistence with the literature data. Robins tested at daytime show stronger directionality than those tested at night. Birds tested with the sun visible expressed stronger directionality than those tested under overcast. The Robins tested at day more often pointed at the return direction - to the north and to the north-east. The activity of birds in the experimental cage increased at daytime with the lack of sun visible, and with overcast, and was higher in birds with smaller fat deposit, thus it reflected mainly the normal vital activity not associated with the migration.
Tests were carried out with regard to the size of intercellular spaces both in leaves and in the underground parts of plants on severa! species of the. genus Festuca and Poa.Range I: F. gigantea -F. arundinacea -F. pratensis -F. rubra -F. heterophylla -F. ovina.Range II: P. palustris -P. pratensis -P. compressa -P. annua. This work forms to a certain degree the supplement of B a u m a n n and K l a u s s' researches (1955), and its aim was to determine whether the capacity for growth of roots in a given well determined level of soil moisture for several species of grasses (at identical of high moisture soil conditionsl has any connection with the size of aerial system of the given species. Cultures of above species were carried out in experirnental vases in which the distance of water surface from surface of soil amounted to 30-40 cm. The size of intercellular spaces in leaves, roots and underground rhizomes was tested by means of the vacuum-filtration method and calculated in proportion to the volume of given organ .It was established that ranging of the tested species from genus Festuca and Poa finds its motivation in the morpho-physiological reaction of the particular species -namely in the capacity for creating a convenient intercellular spaces system. In the range of the genus Festuca the decrease in the general size of intercellular spaces between extreme species is 1,8 times than in the range Poa.The difference at the size of spaces between extreme species in the range, proves to be nearly two times greater for the underground parts than for leaves. It proves that the reaction of underground parts of plants is stronger than that of parts above ground (leaves). On basis of her present and previous works the author states that all species of grasses submitted to testing are characterised by the highest percentage of intercellular spaces in leaves, a lower one in roots and principally the lowest one in rhizomes. The author points out that the „coefficient" of the relation of plant to soil aeration i. e. the so called „size of intercellular spaces" - can be useful in research work analysing the relation of plants to their surroundings.
Thickening of zooplankton by filtering the lake water through nylon netting of mesh-size 10, 20, 30 and 60 μm caused losses amounting to 27, 32, 43 and 54%, respectively, of the real numbers of rotifers. The netting did not significantly change the numbers of crustaceans, and only a small proportion of nauplii (up to 10%) was lost when the 60 μm net was used. Filtering was found to also affect the estimated fertility of rotifers by artificially lowering its value for the ovigerous species - Keratella cochlearis (Gosse), or raising - for the non-ovigerous species, Polyarthra vulgaris Carlin.
The third instar larva of eight Philonthus species from Argentina, P. flavolimbatus Erichson, P. pauxillus Solsky, P. bicoloristylus Chani-Posse, P. sericans (Gravenhorst), P. bonariensis Bernhauer, P. longicornis Stephens, P. rectangulus Sharp and P. quadraticeps Boheman, are described (five for the first time), keyed and illustrated. Measurements of alllarval instars and differences in chaetotaxic and non-chaetotaxic characters between first and third instar are given in tables and illustrated. A generic description based on literatureis also included. Chaetotaxy descriptions for Philonthus species are elaborated based on Ashe and Watrous´s system for setal patterns. Characters of systematic value at generic andspecific levels are highlighted and discussed.
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