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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
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INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
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INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
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INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
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INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
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SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
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MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
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INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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- The article presents a discussion of various ways of performing metaphorical gestures during the utterance. The observation of the conversing people involved in a dynamic discussion shows that metaphoricity is the result of the cooperation of two semiotic modes, verbal and gestural, where gestures can connect with the verbal layer of the utterance in at least several ways. In order to describe and analyse them, the author, based on the theoretical foundations developed in the field of gestures studies (A. Kendon, D. McNeill, C. Müller, A. Cienki, J. Antas), uses selected episodes of the information program “TAK JEST” as research material. The analysis includes statements that exemplify five different functions that metaphorical gestures can play in the process of creating meanings.
- The article presents an analysis of corpus texts describing the relation on a first-name basis in Polish society. The research is based on over 600 texts with the phrases na ty and per ty (eng. on a first-name basis) taken from the linguistic corpus of Polish. Such texts allow the author to illustrate the general frame of the relation on a first-name basis. The analysis has shown that the interlocutors in this type of relation share one or more bonds of the following kinds: a bond for benefits, a bond for ease of communication, and an emotional bond. The bond for benefits connects interlocutors in order to achieve a common goal, which can sometimes be observed as a relation on a first-name basis among politicians. Some texts have shown that people decide to switch to a first-name basis to simplify their interaction. The emotional bond, which also connects people addressing each other on a first-name basis, may be related to family groups or a long- term relation between interlocutors. Transition to a first-name basis can be treated as an act confirming the existence of one or more of the above-mentioned bonds, which does not always mean permission to cross the border of privacy. The results of the analysis have also shown that social markers such as age, hierarchy, and gender may cause uncomfortable feeling when switching to a first-name basis. The elements indicated by this analysis provide an important perspective for further research.
- The article presents an analysis of lexical data obtained by a free word association experiment in two studiesseparated by 50 years (Kurcz 1967, Gatkowska 2017: 1000 and 900 subjects respectively). Comparativeanalysis was used to analyze the names of colors (white, yellow, black, red, blue and green) and their experimentalconnotations. The gap of 50 years revealed the stability of meanings (semantic connotations) resultingfrom the fact that a given color is an inherent feature (e.g. white - snow), as well as stability of conventions(e.g. white - purity, innocence) and the simultaneous variability of extra-linguistic facts, e.g. thenumerous lexical connotations of red in the Kurcz study, motivated by the political situation of Poland at thetime, that are not present in the contemporary experiment, or new color connotations ( e.g. black - elegant,green - money). In both experiments one can see the use of metonymy to connect a color name and a person.
- The article presents an outline of critical methodology in relation to toponomastics. Critical research is aimed at uncovering hidden ideologies that constitute the background of the formation or change of geographical names of various categories. In the article, the traditions of toponomastic research are shown, and against their background, the possibilities of including in such research also the critical perspective are presented. Specific examples of both research and social processes that regulate the changes of names (e.g. of streets, countries) are shown. The perspectives of critical toponomastics research are outlined; this research may be undertaken, if both theoretical methodological assumptions (the notion of social space, cultural space, symbolic power, collective memory) and source resources (the use and registration of names by users) are modified.
- The article presents conception of research into linguistic stylization used by screenwriters. In the first part, the author discusses the theoretical assumptions. He believes that research into stylization should include three aspects: grammatical, semantic and pragmatic. Taking into account the visual context is also necessary for a full description of linguistic phenomena. In the second part of the article, the author applies the proposed method to empirical material. Archaization in a Polish horror film Wilczyca (She Wolf, 1982) is analyzed.
- The article presents contemporary sociolinguistic situation of the Grodno region and try to emphasize on its basic elements. The topic has been taken by the author due to the fact that the Belarusian researchers, who focus on the sociolinguistic situation in Belarus usually include only Russian/Belarusian option and rarely refer to Grodno. On the other hand, Polish researchers pay attention primarily to the situation of the Polish language. The article presents the main elements of social language situation, as well as using the key areas of languages and communication taking into accounts the link between language and social facts. Theses presented in this article are the result of extensive research based respectively on: the latest statistics of the National Statistics Committee of Belarus from the last census, passive and participatory observation, several interviews (including biographical) with representatives of various social groups, information on the activities of civil society organizations, as well as known life experience.
- The article presents different, often contradictory, opinions on the status and nature of lexicography and discusses,among others, the following issues: is lexicography practice, theory or both? Is lexicography a partof linguistics, applied linguistics, a sub-discipline of lexicology or applied lexicology, or a separate discipline?The main aim of the article is to show how lexicography should be understood both as practice andtheory, and that lexicography, whose object of study is a dictionary, is not a part of linguistics, whose objectof study is language. According to the author, metalexicography should be considered a separate scientificdiscipline, while lexicography as a whole, i.e. its practical and theoretical components, can be consideredan academic discipline.
- The article presents main ideas which originated and have been developed in the sociolinguistic school atthe University of Silesia. The school was born in the 1970s and its origins are associated with the name ofWładysław Lubaś, the true founder of the Silesian sociolinguistics The article presents the issue of the socalledsociolinguistic breakthrough and Lubaś’s own theoretical conceptions which were taken up and furtherdeveloped by his followers. It also discusses the status of sociolinguistics as a research method, specificityof the language in Silesian cities and of spoken language research, the issue of vernacular as a language ofidentity, the problem of Silesian bilingualism, theoretical issue of diglossia and, finally, research on everydaylanguage and on the language of Silesian younger generation.
- The article presents the achievements of professor Aleksandra Cieślikowa in the field of word-formationof proper names. The most important issues concerning the creation of anthroponyms in theOld Polish era selected from monographs and scientific articles are detailed. These issues includethe problems of motivation in onomastic word-formation, the onimization process and the way ofdescribing non-derivatized words by word formation and the participation of paradigmatic derivationin the emergence of Old Polish personal names. The views of Aleksandra Cieślikowa regardingOld Polish anthroponymy contributed to the development of onomastic word-formation, an integralpart of the grammar of proper names and gave methodological foundations for the description ofOld Polish personal names from a synchronic perspective.
- The article presents the Electronic Corpus of 17th- and 18th-century Polish Texts (informally called KorBa)in terms of its usefulness for neo-Latinist research. The corpus contains approximately 0.5 million tokensannotated as Latin words, which makes them easy to find by means of the corpus search engine. The articledescribes examples of research that can be carried out on the material collected in the corpus, both on individualLatin phrases and on the mutual relations between the Polish language and Latin in Middle Polishtexts. Some data taken from the frequency list of Latin word forms in the corpus were also presented.
- The article presents the etymology and history of two basic terms of language etiquette: grzeczny (‘polite’) and grzeczność (‘politeness’). The author shows how the semantics of the noun rzecz, which was derived from the verb rzec, evolved to the meaning correspondent to the Latin noun res. From rzeczy the prepositional phrase was created k rzeczy → krzeczy → grzeczny (vocalization before the word-initial sonorant) which implicated the meaning ‘precisely, sensibly, properly’, and the subsequentgrzeczny, originally ‘suitable, proper’, then ‘sensible’, and finally ‘polite’ (from the 17th c., widespread from the 18th c.). Grzecz ność, derived from the word grzeczny with its latter definition, established and spreaded in the 18th c. the meaning still valid nowadays: ‘courtesy, politeness, good manners’.
- The article presents the findings that have emerged from a student-addressed questionnaire survey on a stereotype of, respectively, “typical” priest and “true” priest. The diagnostic study was carried out at the Faculty of Humanities at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin. The theoretical grounding for the analysis stems from the two research methodologies, that is, a psychosociocultural and ethnocognitive ones. As evidenced in the article, the “typical” representative can be ascribed with the attributes of a priest that the students either know in person or they know from some independent communication, mass-media coverage included. This is the reason why the image of the priest happens to be ambivalent, that is, it includes both positive as well as negative shades of attitude. In reference to the “true” priest, in turn, the students tend to point to positive characteristics only, depicting the priest as they wish he were, which explains why elements of strong idealisation and wishful thinking can be identified in the students’ responses. It has been found that students perceive the priest with respect to two functions: (1) basic – natural, connected with serving the Church, and therefore associated with positive experiences and values such as trust, spirituality, piety, intransigence and truth, (2) “serving” the believers who expect a clergyman to possess characteristics going far beyond typically human, and being almost god-like. The collected data has demonstrated a rather weak exposition of the former function, which can be explained by the fact that this function is obvious from the point of view of the semantics of the priest. Moreover, the respondents did not in fact provide the characteristics of a real priest but rather created an image of him, their own perception of a priest they would like to have (i.e. what the priest should be like), which made serving the Church an issue of lesser importance. The image of the priest which has been recreated on the basis of students’ statements has confirmed that both positive and negative characteristics can be combined in a single stereotype. Emotional assessments, albeit secondary to the cognitive valour, are still quite significant, as they reveal the cultural-subjective conditioning. The priest is therefore both religious and pious, and greedy and calculating for the respondents.
- The article presents the results of a comparative analysis of Roman Catholic (from the portal Deon.pl) andProtestant, Pentecostal (from the magazine “Chrześcijanin” et al.) Christian testimonies. Using the tools ofcorpus linguistics, the authors show the differences between both collections of texts. Especially interestingwas the reconstruction of the „areas of sin”, the evils the testimony authors overcame thanks to God’shelp. These are different spheres for both types of texts, in the case of Catholic testimonies it is formed bya semantic complex built around the terms of “love – sex – asceticism”, and Pentecostal testimonies arefocused on the “stimulants – addictions – antisocial behaviour” complex. The analysis consisting of twostages (frequency, describing the role of keywords in the corpus, and visual recognition of the most importantcollocations) allowed us to formulate conclusions on the dominant areas of meaning which define themental map of the religious life of the followers of both the Christian denominations.
- The article shows correlations between the honorification forms used by politicians to create in their textsrelations between the politician and his recipients (future voters), as well as other politicians which he directlyor indirectly points out. The analysis of this problem showed the necessity to take into account the categoriesof honorification in the study of both the image of a politician — a populist leader, as well as linguisticrelations created by him. The subject of the analysis is a populist political discourse which we analyze froma political and linguistic perspective. The article presents honorification created at the systemic, interactiveand sociolinguistic level. The confirmation of the assumptions made is the analysis of Paweł Kukiz’s texts,which showed that the politician consciously uses grammatical and lexical means of honorification in orderto build his social and political role and the role of other participants in political communication.
- As one could expect, the greatest number of the Baltic hydronyms and toponyms are featured in the northeastern part of the Mazovia region in the area of the confluence of the entire Narew and lower Bug. These are mainly names of rivers (35), less numerous are place names (24). The majority of these names is motivated by names featured in the area of historical Prussia and Yatvingia. Moreover, some of them even have direct equivalents in that region; references to the Lithuanian language are less common. This enables us to surmise that the prehistorical Mazovia region was inhabited by West Baltic people, and the Slavic colonizers reached this area in the late prehistorical period.
- The author of the article, using the available lexical data (from dictionaries of the Polish language and Dictionary of the Polish local dialects and its card index), verifies the status of words (and several phraseologisms) considered as regionalisms in Białystok and the surrounding area (a total of 83 units). These regionalisms were presented in the article by Piotr Wróblewski Regionalizmy w języku inteligencji białostockiej (1981). This article is a kind of report from many years of direct observations of the researcher.The author of this article asks the following questions: Do these lexemes occur (did they occur) outside the studied area and in what variation of the language?It turns out that only a few (12 in total) can be considered, without any doubts, as regionalisms, e.g.: dętka ‘Christmas ball’, pacan ‘man of short stature’, sokotać ‘grumble’. On the other hand, some lexemes (14 in total) intuitively fall into this group. A significant part of the analyzed words is known in the language – from other varieties, times, styles or areas of occurrence.The verification once again confirmed the thesis about the slight regional differentiation of the Polish language in the field of lexis. This state of affairs makes it difficult to identify regionalisms. However, it shows Polish as a relatively uniform language, which does not cause any major communication problems between the inhabitants of particular regions of Poland. This situation deserves to be emphasized, especially against the background of sometimes significant regional differences in the language in many countries.In addition, the author joins the researchers who point to the great need to specify the term regionalism in relation to the Polish language.An extensive annex is added to the article, containing data on the analyzed words and phraseologisms obtained from the lexicographic sources included.
- The author presents the main assumptions and the content of Smoleń-Wawrzusiszyn’s monograph paperPolish marketing discourses. A linguistic perspective. This book is placed in the context of critical discourseanalysis and the study of the professiolect of the so-called „new professions”. Changes taking place withinthe style(s) are an indicator of changes in the social and cultural reality of the post-1989 Poland, for exampleconsumerist attitudes and practices becoming more common.
- Bakhtin’s theory of ‘heteroglossia’ has often been used in sociolinguistics to examine questions of multilingualism. However, his concept of ‘borrowed’ voices is also useful for work that investigates identity, especially in the investigation of participant narratives. In my study of ethnic-linguistic identity construction of Polish-born adolescents living in the UK, I draw on the concept of borrowed voices to explore how the adolescents shape their narratives of their experiences. The findings suggest that the adolescents’ accounts are informed by the voices of others around them and that they borrow from discourses on Polish identity as they attempt to make sense of their experiences in their new environments.
- Building on Bergson’s ([1911] 2014) account of laughter, as well as two recognized functions of Chinese humor – 寓教於樂 ‘wrapping instructions in entertainment/amusement’ (Liao 2001) and 會心微笑 ‘a hearty laugh or a knowing smile’ (Chen 2017) – this study intends to analyze the wit and humor found in Chinese characters from a socio-cultural and historical perspective. The data used in this analysis come from internet resources and books, as well as from the authors’ linguistic repertoire. We have observed six sources of humor in Chinese characters. These are: (a) the visual form of a Chinese character; (b) decomposing a Chinese character; (c) Chinese ligatures; (d) Chinese homophonic puns; (e) misreading of similar Chinese characters; and (f) the borrowing of Japanese kanji. Our findings suggest that funny Chinese characters should contain human behavioral attributes and wrapped instructions and will evoke a hearty laugh or knowing smile from the in-group members of a Chinese-speaking community.
- Classifying lexical items into functional classes, traditionally called parts of speech, is an important lexicographic tool serving to inform the dictionary’s readers about the most general, structural features of the lexical units being described. Yet, the problem of setting right criteria for the classification still remains unsolved, especially with reference to uninflected lexemes, devoid of formal inflectional features. The lack of clear and commonly accepted rules of differentiating between paricular kinds of indeclinable words characterizes also Latin grammatical theory and lexicography. As a result, the main Latin-Polish dictionaries differ in ascribing grammatical status to Latin uninflected lexemes like igitur, nam, utinam, num, quidem, itaque, an, praeter. The aim of this paper is to reflect on functional and syntactic status of Latin indeclinable words, and to suggest a solution for the above mentioned problem
- The coexistence of the Balts, namely Prussians, and Poles, began quite a few centuries ago, and we cannot give the precise date when the first contacts between the two nations were established. Most likely, it happened earlier than the first attestations in historical documents appeared and their lan - guage systems also came into contact with one another. One of them, the Prussian one, only left a lim- ited written legacy, yet several thousand Prussian proper names were scattered across all the lands inhabited by Prussians and recorded in a number of the documents of the Teutonic Order. Prussian toponyms used to be Germanized, and those Germanized forms outlived Prussians themselves. The processes of Polonization rested upon the Germanized Prussian toponyms and often on the Prussian model itself. It is a fact that Prussians inhabited the areas of present-day Poland and the Kaliningrad Region. The Prussian-German-Polish life in the same lands determined language contacts and the processes of toponym integration. Onomasticians specializing in the proper names from those areas should exhaustively describe the processes of onym adoption from one language system to another by not forgetting one of the key tasks in historical onymy, in-depth attestations of every place name under analysis in the most reliable sources, i.e. manuscript documents. Onyms travel from one lan- guage into another by leaving their traces in the authentic form, which is of great value for the deter- mination of reliable etymology. Onyms are reliable witnesses of the actual reality of that time and history. The statements are illustrated by the examples, which have not been found or they were interpreted differently in the works of Polish onomasticians and significant collections of toponyms.
- Considering the linguistic variety of the analyzed field, its dynamically developing specialized vocabulary and, generally, the international character of sport, it can be stated that the competently prepared lexicographic compositions are an important element of an efficient communication within the sphere of physical culture. The focus of the present paper goes to the difficulties of the authors, often practitioners non linguists, of the two- or multilingual dictionaries of sport or of a chosen sport discipline. The conducted terminographic analysis of the chosen dictionaries based on Łukasik’s methodology (2007), including macro-, medio- and microstructure parameters, enabled to identify the main problematic issues, which are related to the specifics of language or — better — languages of sport and to the typical difficulties connected with the construction of a dictionary. The findings of the research may contain valuable recommendations for future dictionary-makers.
- Discussions concerning contemporary communication usually centre around communication that is mediallyintermediated.However, it appears that also urban space may constitute an interesting source of research inspirationsince it is full of urban texts which assume diversified functions in it. Research into the so-calledlinguistic landscape focuses on the verbal layer of the text. In the meantime, the majority of urban textspertain to multimodal texts, making use not only of words, but also images. In the article an attempt wasmade at describing the multimodal linguistic landscape of Cracow. The collected research material was subjectto analysis taking into consideration the composition of particular texts as well as tasks performed bythem, which became the basis for the creation of a profile of urban texts in structural and functional terms.
- The distribution of four Polish participles across different functional styles has been discussed in manyworks, but never treated as an independent topic. This paper aims to examine the frequency of participles(both adjectival and adverbial) in 12 styles represented in the National Corpus of Polish Language (NKJP)and to provide some explanations for the varied distribution of these forms. It is done in the course of severalquantitative analyses. The difference between adverbial participles and so-called quasi-participles isalso taken into consideration.The data presented shows the direct correlation between the frequencies of every participle type and theformality level of a particular style. The difference between adverbial participles and quasi-participles isdemonstrated as significant. The article provides new arguments for the thesis that anterior adverbial participlestend to disappear in Polish.Interestingly, there is also a very strong positive correlation between average sentence length across stylesand the associated frequencies of adjectival participles, however it only concerns this particular group. Thedata for adverbial participles does not reflect this pattern. What is more, the probability that a word in a sentenceis a participle is found to be growing along with sentence length for all four types of participles whenthe style division is not considered. It suggests that the origin of adverbial participles’ style distribution ismore multifactorial than that of adjectival participles. It seems that all four participles are efficient grammarmeans to maximize the amount of information in a sentence by compacting additional verbal groups, butthe adverbial participles also bear some other characteristics (i.e. relative tense marking, some vaguenessof meaning) that could supposedly shape their functionality across styles.
- The essay deals with the analysis of the content and the structure of the associative fields of lexemes from the semantic field “religion and Church” in Russian and Serbian languages on the material of associative dictionaries. The aim of this study is the reconstruction of the notions of the religiosity in the consciousness of the both language speakers. The results are set in correlation with the recent sociological studies of the religiosity of Russian and Serbian citizens. The analysis reveals the compatibility of the picture of the religiosity in the language consciousness of the contemporary speakers of Russian and Serbian languages with the findings obtained by sociological methods. According to the structure and the content of the associative fields of the lexemes from the domain of spirituality, religious notions among Russians are amorphous, emotionally and expressively more negatively marked than among Serbs, and they imply greater detachment which is manifested through intellectualistic, rational and atheistic approach. The syncretism of the Soviet ideological attitude toward religious values and their modern status in the post-atheistic and post-totalitarian society is also noticeable, with its rather weak manifestations of the traditional orientation. Among Serbs, the attitude toward the terms from the sacral domain is mostly positively marked, but notions about them are often ambiguous. The most dominant is the traditionalism, with the weaker exposing of the national element, but certain profanation of the terms and notions form the sacral sphere are also noticeable, and it stems from the coexistence of the religious and the secular.
- Exonyms are an integral part of every language, history and material and spiritual culture of individual nations. Slovak, like any other language, has the right to adapt foreign names to its needs. There is no doubt about the social importance and significance of the standardization of geographical names, including exonyms, also for communication and exact identification of the object. When standardizing exonyms as well as other kinds of toponyms, it is necessary to take into account not only the language system and the literary language, but also the forms used in various spheres of communication. Social and political factories of international character have a much greater influence on the standardization of exonyms, in comparison to other kinds of toponyms. The paper deals with the definition of the term exonym and the suitability of the Slovak domestic term “vžitý názov” (conventional name), given that some exonyms are not characterized by the sign of ‘conventionality’, i. e. the standardized form is no longer used, or the form that is not used in communication is standardized. The author briefly characterizes the basic types of Slovak exonyms and some of their orthographic problems, which were solved in the past, the principles of standardization of exonyms and recommendations in connection with the use of exonyms and endonyms. The next part of the paper is devoted to some current issues related to the standardization of some exonyms, such as the standardization of the abbreviated Slovak names of the state “Spojené kráľovstvo, Veľká Británia” (United Kingdom, Great Britain), the standardization of two Slovak exonyms for one object or previously standardized forms of Slovak exonyms for some names of municipalities in Hungary with a Slovak national minority, which are not used today among Slovaks in Hungary. A long-term problem is incorrectly formed and used exonyms of Slovak geographical objects in translations of Slovak texts into foreign languages.
- Factors that disturb everyday communication include those connected with the assessment of the level of correctness of using the Polish language by interlocutors. They consist in indicating a noticed error of speech (e.g. during conversation or while writing comments on an Internet forum). Independently from the level of linguistic competence, the interlocutors often focus on the metalinguistic aspect of utterance. It is connected with the conviction that the message should not only be comprehensible but also linguistically correct. The main area of interest in the article are situations when the noticing of a linguistic error in the utterance by one of the interlocutors causes a change of content from the current one to the new one, connected with the noticed defect. Such remarks and comments may result in various interferences. In extreme cases a total discontinuation of the communication process may occur.
- Five years have passed since Professor Roman Laskowski’s death. The author can recall the Professor’s outstandingachievements in the field of Polish grammar and methodology of linguistics. The first part of thearticle discusses Laskowski’s theory of parts of speech, as well as his original and innovative proposals infunctional classifications of Polish lexemes. The second part of the review focuses on Laskowski’s achievementsin research on morphological categories related to the inflected parts of speech. Laskowski’s mostimportant works on both verbal and nominal categories are also presented in the article.
- The focus of the paper1 is the conflict centred around orthography in Bosnia and Herzegovina between advocates of the Karadžić-Daničić concept of language and those of a moderate morphophonemic concept based on the language of the Zagreb Philological School. Special attention will be dedicated to two sessions of the committee for orthography held in 1883 and to the proposal, presented by Kosta Hörmann and Ljuboje Dlustuš, for the preservation and recovery of morphophonemic orthography in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their proposals will be compared with those presented by Vatroslav Jagić in his 1864 treatise Naš pravopis. The outcome and influence of this conflict on the state of orthography in Croatia will also be discussed.
- The following article attempts to characterise an intercultural linguistic communication of people livingin the area of Polish-Czech borderland. The research conducted in 2018 aimed to determine the dominatingmodel of communication, as well as the reason behind its prevalence. The article contains the resultsof the analysis of linguistic competences of Poles and Czechs, completed with the portrayal of their languagepreferences. The models known as English as lingua franca, lingua receptiva, as well as their combinationconstitute a context of the considerations.
- The goal of the text is to summarise and analyse commemorative strategies and trends that were used in case of the Czechoslovak and Czech president Václav Havel (1936–2011; 1989–2003, in office) and that were especially expressed through proper names, mostly street names. The research is primarily based on selected archival sources and opinion journalism of the day. The research issue is presented against the broad background of place names commemorating Czechoslovak and Czech presidents over the course of the 20th century.
- The goal of this article is to identify the causes of terminological changes in Hungary’s most recent legislation on the ethnic minorities inhabiting the country. It will also demonstrate the link between the current Hungarian government’s terminological policy and the situation of Hungarian diasporas outside the country’s borders. In particular this concerns two terms — ethnic minority and nationality. The article highlights the historical processes affecting the formation of a multinational and multilingual Hungary and of a legal system reflecting the co-existence of multiple nationalities and languages throughout the territory, as well as the points of conflict and attempts to introduce solutions either safeguarding the various nationalities’ interests or establishing the dominance of the Hungarian nationality and language.Following the change of the political system in the late ‘80s the Hungarian government undertook numerous steps to improve the situation of the Hungarian minorities living outside the motherland since the signature of Trianon Treaty in 1920. This policy also impacted the situation of national minorities inhabiting Hungary. Works began on a new, modern law governing the status of national minorities, to provide an example for other countries to follow and an argument for Hungary in negotiations over the status of Hungarian minorities in neighbouring countries. The debate on the draft bill on national minorities, ultimately passed in 1993, saw a return to the best traditions and the most nationality-friendly ideas expressed in 19th century legislation. In contrast with the Magyarizaton idea surfacing in some periods of Hungarian history, the new law was to counteract the assimilation of the various nationalities, instead providing them with structural support in nurturing their own cultures and maintaining a separate identity. The new Hungarian Constitution of 2011 replaced the previously used term ‘national minority’ with ‘nationality’. Legislation enacted after that date has consistently used the term ‘nationality’, as reflected in the title of the new ‘Nationalities’ Act passed already in that same year. This is an intentional propaganda move. The goal of the terminological change is the symbolic elevation of the status of Hungarian populations living outside the motherland and call attention to the fact that Hungary regards them as an inseparable part of the one Hungarian nation.
- In recent years, Poland has seen a change in the identification of people with disabilities. It is noticeableto abandon the use of the terms disabled, blind, cripple, invalid. In this place are the terms a person witha disability, a person with special needs. This indicates a tendency to deviate from the definition of disabilityor its type, in the direction of putting the person first and replacing the concept of disability withother terms that do not have a stigmatizing character. The goal of the article was to show the relationshipbetween the changing language describing and defining disability and changes in the perception of peoplewith disabilities and their impact on the sense of exclusion of people with disabilities. The research useda method of content analysis to recreate disability terms functioning in the opinion of people with disabilitiesin social discourse and an online survey was used to examine the relationship between the sense of exclusionand disability terms, ways of perceiving oneself and the assessment of the society’s attitude towardspeople with disabilities. This allowed to show the meaning of the language and its impact on the processesof integration of people with disabilities in contemporary Poland.
- In the 1980s illegal press played very important role in the fight about political changes in Poland and it also was one of the most important tools against official government language. This press was a part of bigger picture of the language self-defence in totalitarian political system. One of the most important places of its functioning was Cracow. At the beginning, a short description of the Cracow and Małopolska illegal press will be presented. However the main subject of the analysis in this article are titles and subtitles illegal press in the communism time in Cracow and the surrounding, especially various naming strategies used in this titles, as well as their functions. The closer look on that press from the medial onomastic perspective and especially from onomastic discourse analysis shows very well very interesting issues: specific social and political situation of that pass time or also the backgrounds and common values of their authors and readers. In the titles and subtitles of the analysed press we can find words phrases showing the huge needs of truthful information and of independence and freedom and also showing reality as a war. Independence press titles focus also on agitating to the revolt and changes, which consolidate illegal movement and groups protesting against PRL system. In order to achieve their goal, the authors use various naming strategies: the literary references, words pathos or also everyday language, irony, various language games and onomastic provocations (e.g. spelling mistakes, parody of official language, ambiguous titles).
- In the Middle Ages, several name-formation processes played a role in the creation of the anthroponymsin Hungarian. The main name-formation mechanisms were:1. Semantic name-formation. Within this mechanism, the anthroponym develops through the use ofinternal elements of the language in such a way that the anthroponymic meaning is created withoutany change in morphological structure. In Old Hungarian naming practices, the most frequenttypes of semantic name-formation were:a. metaphoric name-giving (e.g. farkas ʽfarkas’ [wolf] > anthroponym Farkas),b. metonymic name-giving (e.g. when an “instrument” of a profession becomes the name of theperson practising the given profession; ökör ʽökör’ [ox] > anthroponym Ökör as the name ofa butcher),c. semantic split: e.g. ethnonyms, names of professions, etc., often become anthroponyms withoutthe use of any morphological tool (kovács ʽkovács’ [smith] > anthroponym Kovács).2. Morphematic construction. In the Old Hungarian period, several suffixes contributed to the creationof anthroponyms, among which the most common ones were: -d(i) ~ -t(i), -s, -a/-e etc. Thismorphological solution was the most important tool for adapting foreign names in the MiddleAges: Petrus in Latin > Petr-i, Pet-e, Pet-i, Pet-es in Hungarian.3. Syntagmatic construction. This process, through the combination of two existing lexemes, createsan anthroponym composed of two constituents, in which both elements provide a certaininformation about the named person.In this essay I provide an overview of the typical name-formation processes characterising the formationof anthroponyms in Old Hungarian.
- In the records of the old Slavic place and field names of West Pomerania, we can observe the affri- catization *r′ > ř, rz etc. in the areas adjacent to the Kashubian-Slavic dialects east of the Słupia River and, rarely, along the south-eastern border of Pomerania. Affricatization of *r′ did not take place in the territory of German Vorpommern, Mecklenburg or in the old Slavic dialects of Polabia. This proves the former differentiation of the Lechitic dialects into Western ones, without the accom- modation *r′ (and also partially without changes *t′, *d′ before the vowels of the front order) and the Eastern ones, characterized by affricatization *r′ > ř, rz, š/ž (and *t′ > ć, *d′ > ȝ́). The lack of accommodation was caused by the tendency to maintain a stronger pronunciation of sonorants. The result was a partial hardening of the consonant system, limitation of the pre-Lechic mutation (proto- Lechitic metaphony), the preservation without metathesis of the group *tărt (karva ‛cow’ type), the merging of continuants *l̥’ and *l̥ > oł (vołk ‛wolf’ type), the vocalization of old weak yers (in ini- tial syllables) in the Polabian dialect (blåxă ‛flea’ type). Numerous parallels with modern Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects have been found.
- In the second part of the article, the history of standardization programmes concerning the names ofphysiographic objects is discussed. The basis of the standardization programme currently followedby the Commission on Names of Localities and Physiographic Objects is described. The paper alsopresents the criteria of linguistic correctness adopted by the previous standardization commissionsas well as by the present one. Issues of linguistic correctness of geographical names with dialectalproperties and of names borrowed from minority languages are discussed. Attention is paid to somestructural discrepancies in the approaches to the issue of correctness taken by the Commission onNames of Localities and Physiographic Objects and by local authorities.
- In this article, the object of analysis is the metaphorical representation of concepts-values from the mental sphere in the Old Polish and Middle Polish periods. In Old Polish and Middle Polish texts, abstract concepts are approached in a metaphorical manner, and some source domains recur relatively frequently. Such metaphors are used in reference to concepts which belong to various spheres. The analysis takes into consideration metaphors which are clearly discernible in short fragments, metaphors which are linguistically marked by words semantically associated with the source domain, metaphors which are at the same time in the close vicinity of the lexeme representing a given value, and metaphors which recur in texts by various authors. The present article is devoted to metaphorical representations of concepts-values in the Old Polish and Middle Polish periods in the category of clothing, a source domain which is drawn from the world of culture, e.g. Bo ieſzcze ten każdy jeſt wzdy dobrey nadzieie / Kto nad inſze vbiory cżnotą ſie odżieie (RejJoz G2; SXVI); Znamienity ubior cnota./ Lepszy niźli bryła złota (Petr.Ek.18; L). In the early Polish language, concepts belonging to various spheres of life were expressed by the means of the category of clothing: ethical and social values, as well as anti-values (negatively marked concepts which have to do especially with the sphere of morality) therefore the metaphor A CONCEPT IS CLOTHING was used to represent concepts regardless of their evaluation presented in a text. The choice of clothing as the source domain to represent concepts from the mental sphere is justified biologically by basic human need and culturally by its presence in the Bible and its social function. It seems that it is a conceptual metaphor in the sense of cognitive linguistics, one that is deeply rooted in the human way of thinking and culturally corroborated. Its use in the representation of concepts which are not very clearly defined in the Old Polish and Middle Polish periods was supposed to portray these concepts and to popularize them, especially in the case when such language was used in moralistic writings. The article is an attempt to answer the question about the connection between metaphorisation and the axiological dimension of concepts
- In this article were considered 46 lexical units derivated from the word -czoło. The above written text (the written material) was arranged in the form of word-creating nest. This composition of the process showed the motivating relation between the centre of the nest and a word-group with a different origin. As was evidenced the analyzed lexemes oscillated around 5 semantic fields which contained the meanings such as: the anatomical substance, the meaning — ‘front’,‘the humbleness’,‘the perfection’ and ‘pride’. The assignation of the word to the particular semantic sphere was not arbitrary so far. So we may say that the language is not a continuum (sequence) with consequently manifested rules. In the process of nomination the main point is the creativity of the people.
- In this article were undertaken the units corresponding with the field of white magic in the form of analysis. Beside the fact that this word ‘white magic’ does not exist in the contemporary Polish — it has a meaning in the interpretation itself namely it was considered as a broad category (to the end of the 19th century) which included the elements associated with the medicine and the religion. The above mentioned topic (the white craft) was analysed as a matter of the investigation of how it was extinct this ‘white lore’. It was stated that the first indication of the white magic was recorded scarcely in the 18th century. The category of the topic was prevalent starting from the ancient Polish language. The onset of it's elements and features characterized the measures of the pagan provenances. By and by to this ‘white way of life’ were introduced the names of the exorcisms. The method dominating in this essay is the analysis of contexts. Considering as an evidence the use of that particular word in the dictionary recording the old Polish and deduce the meaning value of it in the particular time.
- Internationalisms are one of the means which support foreign language learners. They are particularly important when a target language differs to a great extent from the learner’s native language – as is the case with Polish and Hungarian. This paper presents a study which aims to determine whether the international vocabulary is used by the authors of selected Polish and Hungarian as foreign language student’s books. The contrastive quantitative analysis of the books’ content allows not only to show and compare the number of the international words which can be found there but also to make a reflection on the reasons of the observed differences.
- Jarosław Kaczyński, the leader of Law and Justice party, once confused the words of the Polish nationalanthem by singing: „Marsz, marsz Dąbrowski, z ziemi polskiej do Wolski”. The aim of this article is to analyzethe role of the neologism Wolak, based on his slip of the tongue Wolska, in Internet users’ discourse. Thefollowing paper verifies the thesis about the exploitation of this neologism by the antagonists of the partyin order to build a discursive dominance over its supporters. The neologism Wolak operates in the discourseas a sociotype (the stereotype of the Other inspired by his belonging to a social group). French praxematics,the foundations of which form the methodological and theoretical basis of this article, provides very usefultools for the qualitative analysis of this phenomenon.
- Józef Chodźko (1800–1881) was one of the first explorers of the Caucasus and an experienced Polish surveyor and cartographer who surveyed the trans-Caucasian and the Caucasian regions. Thanks to the method of triangulation, he made precise measurements of that region which subsequently enabled the preparation of the maps of the Caucasus. During his survey in the Caucasus region, Chodźko prepared a description of the places surveyed in manuscript form entitled “Orografia Kaukazu Józefa Chodźki”.The aim of this paper is to call attention to the multidimensional value of this handwritten work. This previously unknown manuscript by the Polish investigator of the Caucasus not only includes valuable descriptions of the geography of the Caucasus but also very valuable onomastic material which may be interesting for linguists working on the geographic names of the trans-Caucasian and the Caucasian regions. His work includes many geographic names: oronyms, hydronyms, macro and micro-toponyms and other names of objects the author described in his work. In respect of the etymology the onomastic material recorded by Chodźko represents various linguistic families, such as: Altaic, Indo-European, Caucasian. In the present paper, as an example, some geographic names which seem to be Turkic are shown. The onomastic material included in Chodźko’s work constitutes a valuable source for research on the history and etymology of geographic proper names from the region of the Caucasus. Therefore, linguists, especially those who are engaged in onomastic studies, should take a keen interest in Chodźko’s “Orografia Kaukazu”.
- The main aim of this paper is an attempt to describe the Polish terminology related to language expressivenessand expressive lexis on base of selected didactic works (historical grammars and handbooks) andlinguistic dissertation published in the last fifty years. Author of this article discussed selected terms, e.g.expressiveness, expression, expressive sign, expressive words and typologies of expressive words by TeresaSkubalanka, Stanisław Grabias, Halina Zgółkowa and Artur Rejter. It is a theoretical paper which can bea prolegomena to further research on question devoted to language expressiveness and expressive lexis inhistorical approach.
- The main purpose of this article is an attempt at the description of the role of roadside shrines andcrosses in geographical names. The study encompasses more than 1,000 microtoponyms collectedin the years 2011–2017 in the area around the village of Wręczyca Wielka near Kłobuck (Silesianvoivodeship). The analysis also offers a justification for the onyms, as well as stories and legendselicited during informal conversations with the middle and the oldest generation of inhabitants ofthe explored area. The author uses the research tools of cultural onomastics.The objects of sacral architecture which appear in geographical names frequently have a numberof functions. Mostly, roadside shrines and crosses help to locate or mark fields, meadows, forestsand paths. Furthermore, the data that shed light on the motivation of microtoponyms documentthe relationship between the abovementioned examples of sacral architecture with the surroundingphysiographic objects, highlighting the role of these forms in folk culture. Both roadside crossesand shrines commemorate past events and preserve the elements of rural customs. The few specimensof sacral architecture functioning as the motivation for microtoponyms also confirm the factthat, for the oldest generation of village inhabitants, religion is still one of the most important values.
- The mass transfer of specialized lexical units related to the activities of the European Union has taken placein the Polish language of the last two decades. The terminology created for Poland’s accession to the EUhas not been analyzed in detail so far, nor is it included in the Polish dictionaries. For several years, I conducteda study, covering the corpus of collected lexical units defining the activities of the EU , consistingin an attempt to analyze them morpholexically and to systematise them. As a result, I divided the corps,among others, into official terms, confirmed in sources, and bruxellisms (2019) — equivalents of EU termsin the general language. In this article, I try to show, on selected examples, how the EU terminology inthe Polish language evolves in the short term, what are the relations between the terms and bruxellisms andwhat changes are taking place within bruxellisms.
- Names in official circulation appear in an officially approved form and may not be freely changed. In informal communication they sometimes undergo certain transformations, which affects their communicative value. The paper analyses one type of name transformations in Internet communication, namely the creation of unofficial forms of women’s surnames using selected dialect maritonymic suffixes.The analysis was limited to the names of women participating in political life. The names of women politicians formed according to dialect patterns of maritonymic formation in Internet communication function as expressivisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which are the evaluative, persuasive, ludic and identifying ones.
- Names of administrative units belong to choronyms. They are located in a transitional zone between proper names and appellatives. The prototypical centre of the category of properhood includes names of administrative units that are homonymic to names of localities and regions, e.g. Rzeszów (city county), Tyrol (Austria, 1st order administrative unit). Further from the category’s centre there are multi-element names comprising a proprial component and a generic element, e.g. Kraj Basków, Kraj Loary, Bazylea-Okręg, Terytorium Stołeczne Islamabadu, Prefektura Wientian. On the borderline between proper names and appellatives there are descriptions like Prowincja Centralna, Region Stołeczny which describe individual concepts with appellative vocabulary. Names consisting of a generic term and an adjective derived from a place name belong to appellatives, e.g. województwo podlaskie, powiat otwocki, rejon birżański, obwód brzeski.The spelling of multi-element names comprising a generic term or a generic element remains an open issue because there is a discrepancy between general orthographic rules and the usus.
- The names of stations in the Way of the Cross may be used as titles of pictures and sculptures, eachcorresponding to a particular event in the Passion of Christ, or as titles of meditations. The articlefocuses on the second meaning, but the trends of the development of both kinds of names are similar.The study is based on material consisting of about 200 texts of the service that have been publishedfrom the beginning of the 20th century to the present (2020). The purpose of the article isto describe the changes that have taken place in the 20th century, a period of particularly turbulentchanges in religious discourse. The article deals with the function, syntactic structure and featuresof style, such as the use of archaic or colloquial vocabulary. These properties are considered in connectionwith social and cultural changes. At the beginning of the analyzed period, it was customaryto use relatively long titles, which informed the participant or reader about a particular event usingexpressive and evaluative lexis. Those titles gradually gave way to short, schematic names. Sincethe Second Vatican Council, titles of a new type have appeared. Their purpose is to attract the attentionof the recipient. They are based on a riddle, a contrast, allusions, etc. Therefore, the recipientderives satisfaction from deciphering the puzzle or finding the source of the quote or allusion. Thesephenomena are known from research on the language of press or fiction, but they can also be linkedto current trends in the so-called new evangelization.
- The novel series The Fern Flower is an alternative vision of Poland in the 21st century. However, thereis a place in it for the dialect of the Kielce area (there is an action set in there). The article examines linguisticindicators of dialect stylization and the stereotype of dialect in popular literature. The author skilfully presentedthe features of the real dialect (phonetic, inflectional, word-form and lexical level), at the same timeshe wrote them into the literary stereotype of the dialect. Interesting is the manner of introducing dialectalvocabulary that has been adapted to the linguistic habits of the heroes. Examining the attitude of the heroesto the dialect, placing this variety in a specific cultural context, we can recreate the social stereotypeof dialect in contemporary Poland.
- The objective of the article is to (1) explain the role of emergent literacy in the community language in developing literacy in the additional language and biliteracy, and (2) demonstrate the need to develop resources supporting emergent reading skills in community languages in Australia. A critical review of literature in the field of emergent literacy and bilingual language development shows that the interaction between languages in the development of biliteracy is complex, but overall it demonstrates a positive impact of emergent literacy in the community language on the development of literacy skills in the additional language in later years. The article presents emergent literacy example materials, targeting bilingual children in Australia with Polish backgrounds, and explains the design considerations underpinning their development. A particular emphasis is on explaining how the materials have been designed to (1) stress the presence of different cultures and languages in the children’s environment (2) teach how to transfer reading skills and behaviours from Polish into English, and (3) emphasise those specific grapheme-phoneme relations in Polish which present difficulties for children acquiring Polish and English. The authors conclude that opportunities for transfer of early reading skills and behaviours from a community language to an additional language can be enhanced by designing reading materials for positive transfer, because learners who are acquiring an additional language use the strategies which they find most useful in their first language. It may be equally important to develop reading materials and instruction in the mainstream language in a way that community-language-speaking children are able to draw upon the skills which they bring with them into the reading learning process at school from home.
- The objective of this work is, on one hand, a review of the nomenclature concerning the etymology of the name of Katowice (1598), and on the other, presenting the origin of the secondary name Stalinogród (1953) related to the cult of Stalin. It was decided to present two contradictory “historical events”: the natural naming process, showing the authentic fate of the name Katowice and the political top-to-bottom interference that changed the name of the capital of Upper Silesia to Stalinogród, arousing so many negative emotions in Poland. Poles were well aware of the difference between commemorating their own worthy citizens and worshipping a foreign dictator. Every dynamically developing city was responsive to all kinds of ideological changes. The example of Katowice and Stalinogród revealed the most aggressive tendencies of the power of socialist reality and changes in social awareness.There are many disputes around the genesis of the name Katowice, and it is a well-known fact that scientists do not always reach a consensus quickly. There is nothing peculiar or unusual about this, but such a situation has enormous methodological and research consequences. This is shown by the state of research and linguists’ discussion about the name Katowice, which ultimately leads to learning the truth about the genesis of the city’s name.
- Official talk as a kind of institutional character interaction has not been a subject of detailed profound linguistic analyses so far. The article constitutes an attempt at describing an official conversation through conversation analysis which is aimed at focusing and interpretation of formal and informal elements. The presence of these elements in the official talks is conditional on the formal character of the conversation on the one hand, and on the other hand on its oral form. Formality and informality are treated as factors which shape the relation between interlocutors and as discourse control tools.
- The onymic image of the world in a translation through an intermediary language as exemplifiedby the anthroponyms in a collection of short stories “Baummoos pflücken” (lit. “The LichenCollector”) by Zhang Wei.The article addresses the issue of the linguistic image of the world — reflected in proper names —and of its translation. Chinese onyms and their related forms of address contain information aboutmutual relations between the speaker and the named object, thus offering a better insight into socialrelations in small language and cultural communities. The challenge for the translator is not onlyto translate these onyms, but also to preserve their social function in the text. This has been exemplifiedin the article by a translation of a collection of short stories from Chinese to Polish throughGerman, where the intermediary language adds another coherence layer. The theory of the linguisticimage of the world and proper names per se are a starting point for a critical analysis of this specifictranslation in view of the translation of onyms and of their potential for conveying the image of theworld. Emphasis is placed on the transfer of the social functions of onyms into the target language.The influence of onyms and of their consistent treatment in the translation on the coherence of thestudied text has also been taken into account.
- The Osěk- and Osěč- names form a small group of place names which designate settlements near a border barrier. The individual tribal areas were usually encircled by a wide band of primeval forest. In the early Middle Ages access to a tribal area was safeguarded by a border barrier. For this purpose one chopped off branches and tree tops at a height of two meters and thus created an impenetrable obstacle. The passage way was easy to control and defend. The Proto-Slavic words *osěkъ and *osěčь which refer to these constructions are derived from the Proto-Slavic verb *osěkati, meaning “to chop branches off the trees, to trim, hew trees”. In this article all respective place names of the Old Sorbian language area are compiled and historically documented. In addition, the site of a tribal area or an old traffic connection is described. A multicolored map illustrates the results of the research.
- The paper analyses categorisation of the semantic field ‘Europe’ in Croatian and Serbian daily newspapers between 2007 and 2017. A large corpus of articles is used to select keywords and examples for analysis. Random samples of concordances featuring the syntagms ‘Eastern Europe’ and ‘Central Europe’ are then analysed to reconstruct their semantic extensions and connotations. The widespread use of metonyms ‘EU’ – ‘Europe’ is evidenced, as well as strong synonymity of these collocations and ‘post-socialist countries’. The analysed examples also suggest that the choice between binary (East – West) and ternary categorisation (East – Centre – West) is heavily dependent on the semantic domain and genre of a given text.
- The paper argues with the claims presented in I. Nasalski’s article entitled “Functions and dysfunctions of inclusive language with a particular focus on gender asymmetry in Polish” (Socjolingwistyka 2020), according to which grammatical gender systems, understood by the Author as (a)symmetries between masculine and feminine personal nouns, have negligible effect on women’s social situation as proved by different gender structure of Arabic, Persian and Polish, which does not correspond to women’s rights in the countries where these languages are spoken. Consequently, the Author questions the need to form new feminine nouns in Polish. The present paper points to many simplifications in Nasalski’s reasoning as well as his failure to refer to numerous studies which offer different points of view in the gender asymmetry debate. They concern various aspects of gender inequality in Arabic, the influence of language on our thinking and behaviour, and particularly the negative impact of gender biased language and advantages of using gender-fair language.
- The paper concerns the analysis of the conversational constructions with the verb of emotions lubić in preschool discourse. Some aspects of pragmalinguistic and cognitive theory provide tools to characterize the ways in which children use constructions in the colloquial language and text. Our analysis is focused in particular on the sense of value and the process of creation of sentences with valuating constructions. We also provide information on the development of communicative competence of children.
- The paper deals with a correlation between the linguistic features of Mandarin Chinese and the language activities of young female participants in a television show broadcast on the Internet. The women’s sociolect and the characteristics of the sajiao style are analysed on the basis of their 1802 informal utterances recorded on the show. The paper explores the way in which lexical and phonetic features express femininity and contribute to the women’s persuasive talk. The formal markers of the language used by female native speakers communicate politeness, emotions and gentleness and at the same time acknowledge their position of subordination within society. The study begins with an introduction into the pragmatics of culture-driven language activity and moves on to outline the current knowledge of the peculiarities of the Chinese language used by Chinese women. Drawing on earlier discussions, a compilation of linguistic features is employed as an analytical tool. The particular words and expressions as well as pronunciation features are discussed. Not all linguistic features of Mandarin Chinese discussed in previous studies are confirmed in the utterances under study. Those which add significant expressive meaning and gentleness into an utterance dominate in the study over the sajiao style, the phonetic and prosodic features typical for a babyish form of persuasion. As evidenced by a quantitative and qualitative analysis, the utterances in question abound in emotions, in wavering opinions that put the speaker in a position inferior to that of the addressee, and in instances of speaking in a manner typical of children.
- The paper describes the distribution of two negation raising predicates in Polish: sądzić ‛think’ and wierzyć ‛believe’ in the National Corpus of Polish with a particular focus on their morphosyntax and the mood of their clausal complements. The aim was to examine whether there are any correlations between these two parameters, and to what extent negation raising with those verbs exhibits performative features (in terms of Prince, 1976). The results of the study support the performative approach to negation raising as per Prince (1976) only for cases with subjunctive complements. The corpus findings further imply that Polish negation raising predicates encode two different degrees of (un)certainty concerning the truth of the embedded proposition depending on the mood of their complements. Structures with indicative complements express weaker uncertainty than structures with subjunctive complements.
